《中國人的性格》第二十四章 相互猜疑

《中國人的性格》是美國傳教士阿瑟·史密斯（明恩溥）基于1872年赴華傳教期間的社會(huì)觀察撰寫的著作，首版英文名《Chinese Characteristics》于19世紀(jì)末問世，。作者在華生活逾五十年，書中融合人類學(xué)視角與傳教士立場，記錄了晚清民眾的性格特征與文化形態(tài)。

全書以27個(gè)主題章節(jié)剖析中國人行為模式，包含“保全面子”“省吃儉用”等生活哲學(xué)，以及“漠視精確”“因循守舊”等社會(huì)現(xiàn)象。通過對比西方工業(yè)文明，著重探討東方特有的生存韌性，如環(huán)境適應(yīng)力與疼痛耐受性。書中案例多源自山東鄉(xiāng)村生活經(jīng)歷，涉及衣食住行、孝悌觀念等主題，部分結(jié)論因宗教立場存在視角爭議。該著作開創(chuàng)西方研究中國國民性先河，被譯成多國文字，成為近代中西文化互鑒的重要文本。

第二十四章 相互猜疑

沒有一定的互相信賴，人就不能在有組織的社會(huì)中生存，這是個(gè)勿容置疑的事實(shí)。對中國這樣一個(gè)組織高度嚴(yán)密、復(fù)雜的社會(huì)，更是如此。盡管人們都承認(rèn)這一點(diǎn)，仍有一些現(xiàn)象需要注意。這些現(xiàn)象并不符合我們的觀念，可對于了解中國的人來說，卻是十足的事實(shí)。我們所要討論的主題是中國人的相互猜疑，這一性格特征其實(shí)并無特別之處，所有的東方民族都具備。不過，中國的天才們無疑大大地改變了它的表現(xiàn)形式。知道一些與己無關(guān)、但可能引起嚴(yán)重后果的事，就會(huì)十分危險(xiǎn)，它會(huì)引起極大猜疑。中國人如此，其他民族也不例外。

相互猜疑，在中國經(jīng)久不衰。最引人注意的是帝國各地的城中均圍著高墻。漢語中，“城”一詞本身就包含著被墻所圍的意思，就像拉丁語中的“軍隊(duì)”一詞也有訓(xùn)練、鍛煉的意思一樣。帝國的律法規(guī)定每個(gè)城市必須用一定高度的墻圍起來，不過，它和許多其他法令相同，沒有形諸文字，堅(jiān)決要求實(shí)施，因?yàn)橛泻芏喑菈]有任何保護(hù)設(shè)施，任其頹毀。在太平天國起義中，有一個(gè)城市曾被起義者攻破，并被占據(jù)了好幾個(gè)月，盡管城墻沒有被全部摧毀，可從那以后，十幾年都沒重修，還有許多城墻不過是薄薄的一層泥墻，連狗都可以任意爬進(jìn)爬出。所有這些頹敗的現(xiàn)象只反映了帝國的貧困，一旦有危險(xiǎn)警報(bào)出現(xiàn)，首先就是修城墻。而修城又成了官吏或暴發(fā)戶掠奪的最便捷的途徑。

中國之所以有那么多城墻，是因?yàn)檎恍湃伟傩铡１M管從理論上說，皇帝是百姓的父親，他的臣僚也被稱為“父母官”，但所有的人都清楚，那只不過是一種說法而已，就像說“加”或“減”一樣，百姓與統(tǒng)治者之間真正的關(guān)系是孩子與繼父間的關(guān)系。整個(gè)中國歷史充滿了起義，如果中央政府及時(shí)采取適當(dāng)行動(dòng)，大多數(shù)起義顯然可以避免。可是，政府并不想及時(shí)采取行動(dòng)，也可能是它不希望這樣做，或者有某些原因使它不能這樣做。起義正在悄悄地準(zhǔn)備著，政府也知道，可官員們只是像烏龜一樣地把頭縮進(jìn)殼里，或者像刺猬一樣團(tuán)成球，立刻躲進(jìn)現(xiàn)成的防御城堡中，把動(dòng)亂留給軍隊(duì)去收拾。

與其他東方城鎮(zhèn)一樣，中國居民住處周圍也建有高墻，這是他們相互猜疑的另一表現(xiàn)。外國人對中國人談起倫敦、紐約這類城市，若故意說這些城市是“有圍墻的城市”，會(huì)感到十分為難。使一個(gè)可能對西方感興趣的中國人理解，西方人的住處周圍沒有任何防護(hù)設(shè)施，也并不容易。中國人會(huì)立刻認(rèn)為，那些國家沒有多少壞人，盡管他沒有什么根據(jù)。

在中國農(nóng)村，人們一般擁擠地住在一處，這也可以說明中國人相互猜疑。這些農(nóng)村實(shí)際上是微型城市，它防御的不是外來敵人，而是彼此防御。據(jù)我們了解，只有一些山區(qū)例外。那些地區(qū)土地貧瘠，養(yǎng)不了幾戶人家。他們又實(shí)在太貧窮，根本不用怕賊。巴伯先生描繪了四川的情況：“地主和佃戶各自住在自己的田舍里，他們寧愿分開住，而不愿將住處擠在一起。”如果這個(gè)例外是因?yàn)楣爬系乃拇ū绕渌「谕推剑敲矗颓∏∽C實(shí)了巴伯先生所說的：這種期望已經(jīng)歷了太多痛苦的失望，特別是太平天國那段日子，盡管在此之前曾有過很長一段和平時(shí)期。巴倫·梵·瑞恰斯芬也很贊成巴伯先生的觀點(diǎn)。

中國人，包括其他東方人，在觀念上和實(shí)踐中對待婦女的態(tài)度，也是他們相互猜疑的最重要的表現(xiàn)。其觀念已經(jīng)人人盡知，就是花上一整章也討論不清其中的一點(diǎn)。女孩子一到青春期，就變得像“私鹽”一樣危險(xiǎn)。訂婚之后，就更加不能外出見人了。極細(xì)小、單純的事都會(huì)招來惡毒的流言蜚語。“寡婦門前是非多”，也是公認(rèn)的社會(huì)真理。盡管中國婦女比印度、土耳其的婦女享有更大的自由，*但仍不能認(rèn)為中國婦女能獲得較高的尊重。婦女普遍遭到歧視，處于從屬地位；一夫多妻制和納妾制也一直存在——這些都表現(xiàn)出對婦女的不尊重，可是在西方，尊重婦女是再平常不過的事。中國表達(dá)對婦女看法的俗語也許被視為長期經(jīng)驗(yàn)的總結(jié)，隨處都可以聽到。女人被說成是天生下賤、目光短淺、不可信賴的貨色，還被當(dāng)成嫉妒的化身，人們常說：“妒莫過于婦人。”這里的“妒”想傳達(dá)的意思，是和它讀音相同的一個(gè)字：“毒”，這種觀念，有詩為證：

竹林蛇口

赤蜂尾上

狠毒莫若

婦人心腸

另外，歧視婦女的觀念還滲透在文字中。作為客觀的表現(xiàn)形式，它經(jīng)常引起人們的注意。一位杰出的中國學(xué)者，為了回答筆者的問題，仔細(xì)研究了一百三十五個(gè)以“女”字為偏旁的常用字。結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)，其中十四個(gè)為褒義，如“好”、“嫻”等；其余三十五個(gè)為貶義，八十六個(gè)為中性。那些貶義字囊括了漢語中最惡毒無恥的意義，如虛偽、欺詐、墮落、不忠、自私之類。三個(gè)“女”字組成的

*可這種自由不能以表面現(xiàn)象來判斷。一位在印度德里居住了若干年的婦女，來到山西省首府定居，她評(píng)判說，通常中國街道上的婦女人數(shù)要少于印度。不過，事實(shí)與這段注釋并不矛盾。

奸字，表達(dá)了“與未婚者私通、通奸、誘奸”等等意思。

據(jù)說，不信任別人有兩個(gè)原因：一是不了解對方；二是了解對方。原因不同，中國人的處理方式也不同。中國人天生具有聯(lián)合的本領(lǐng)，如同化學(xué)原子化合一樣。他們彼此不信任是以含蓄的方式表達(dá)的，只要在恰當(dāng)?shù)臅r(shí)間，以恰當(dāng)?shù)姆绞剑覀兙秃苋菀装l(fā)現(xiàn)這一點(diǎn)。媳婦煽起家庭成員之間的不斷猜疑，為了分配共同的勞動(dòng)成果，她們總是使出渾身解數(shù)，挑撥丈夫與家庭間的關(guān)系。

不討論家庭生活了，它可以寫上整整一章。現(xiàn)在讓我們看看沒有復(fù)雜家庭關(guān)系的人。家里的仆人，假如不是由某位富有責(zé)任心的人介紹來的，彼此之間總是保持武裝中立。可假如其中一位有劣跡傳出來，他首先不是問自己：“主人是怎么發(fā)現(xiàn)的？”而是問：“誰告訴他的？”即使他心里清楚，有很多證據(jù)可以證明是他干的，他的第一個(gè)念頭仍是別的仆人在排擠他。我們認(rèn)識(shí)一位中國婦女，有次她聽到院子里有人高聲談話，臉色就馬上變了，怒氣沖沖地從屋子里奔出去，她認(rèn)為，人們是在憤怒地議論她。可事實(shí)上，只是有人在買一堆谷草，嫌賣主要價(jià)太高。

某個(gè)仆人被意外辭退，他肯定會(huì)滿腔仇恨，這也是由猜疑引起的。他懷疑除他自己之外的每一個(gè)人，即使他知道所有的理由中，任何一條都足以使他被辭退，他仍會(huì)堅(jiān)持有人說了他的壞話，堅(jiān)持說辭退他是毫無道理的。他必須挽回“面子”，他猜疑的天性必須滿足，外國家庭的仆人也會(huì)發(fā)生這類事，不過程度不同，因?yàn)橹袊腿酥廊绾纹垓_善良的外國人。但在中國主人那里，他想都不敢這樣想。因此，很多外國人一直雇用著早該辭退的仆人，他們不敢那樣做。他們也知道，單單提出辭退就會(huì)招怨樹敵，其中主要是那些受過指責(zé)、“不光彩”的仆人。外國人沒有勇氣將他們趕走，以免失敗后，情況更糟。

有一個(gè)故事，講的是中世紀(jì)奧地利的一座城市遭到了土耳其人的圍攻，眼看城池就要被攻破了。在這危急關(guān)頭，一位姑娘突然想起了自己的很多箱蜜蜂，就把它們搬到城墻上。這時(shí)土耳其人已快爬到城垛子上了。群蜂飛出，敵人潮水般地退卻了，城市被挽救了。中國人的策略常常和這個(gè)奧地利姑娘一樣，成功對于他們僅是一種標(biāo)志，一位拉丁教授說過，人們寧愿“面對風(fēng)暴的警報(bào)”，也不“面對風(fēng)暴自身”，中國人對待騷亂也如同對待風(fēng)暴一樣。雖然中國人說：“用人不疑，疑人不用”，可經(jīng)常只是睜一只眼，閉一只眼，假裝沒看見，而對于外國人來說，可沒那么簡單，容易處理。

孩子到了獨(dú)立闖世界的年齡，我們認(rèn)為有必要告訴他們：最好不要過分相信陌生人。中國的孩子不需要如此告誡，他們早已從母奶里汲取了這一經(jīng)驗(yàn)。有句俗話說：一人不進(jìn)廟，兩人不看井。我們感到迷惑不解，為什么一個(gè)人不能進(jìn)廟呢？原來是和尚可能會(huì)乘機(jī)謀財(cái)害命。兩人不看井，因?yàn)榧偃缫粋€(gè)人欠了另一個(gè)人的債，或另一個(gè)人身上有他渴望得到的東西，他也許會(huì)趁機(jī)把這個(gè)人推入井中。

另外一些相互猜疑的例子來自人們的日常生活。在西方國家，有自由，無壓抑，而中國明顯缺乏自由。在我們看來，處理一件事情，理所當(dāng)然應(yīng)該采用最簡便的方法，可在中國完全不同，需要考慮很多因素。無論遇到什么事，中國人考慮最多的是兩種東西——錢和糧，它們是大部分中國人生活的兩個(gè)核心。中國人很難相信，一筆錢若交到另外一個(gè)人手里，能夠按既定的方案分配給眾人。他們沒有那種分配經(jīng)驗(yàn)，只認(rèn)為，錢到了另外一個(gè)人手里，他就會(huì)千方百計(jì)地從中克扣。同樣，安排一個(gè)中國人為他人分配食物也很困難。表面上，怎么也看不出接受食物者會(huì)懷疑分配者從中克扣。此時(shí)，不滿的情緒可能被完全壓抑了。但我們不能據(jù)此認(rèn)為，沒有猜疑存在。其實(shí)，只有外國人才把它當(dāng)成一個(gè)問題，中國人認(rèn)為，只要機(jī)器中存在摩擦，人與人之間就存在猜疑。

中國旅館的侍者有個(gè)習(xí)慣，他們總對即將離開的旅客大聲報(bào)出清單上的每一款項(xiàng)。這可不像一些旅客所認(rèn)為的，是在稱贊他的闊氣，它有更實(shí)際的目的，是為了使其他侍者知道，報(bào)單的人并沒有私藏小費(fèi)或“酒錢”，盡管實(shí)際上他們個(gè)個(gè)盼望能夠這樣。

假如一件事接近完成時(shí)，需要重新磋商或修正，中國人就不能像西方人，一封信就可以把事情辦妥。當(dāng)事人要親自到負(fù)責(zé)人家里去。如果時(shí)間太晚，負(fù)責(zé)人不在，還必須再次登門，直到見到為止。假如通過中介，誰都不敢保證事情不被歪曲。

人們經(jīng)常討論中國人的團(tuán)結(jié)。有些時(shí)候，整個(gè)家庭或家族會(huì)干預(yù)屬于家庭成員個(gè)人的事。一個(gè)明智的外姓人。這時(shí)會(huì)格外小心，以免介入，惹火燒身。有句很妙的格言說的就是外姓人的忠言難以被接受。“我們的事情，這家伙攙和什么？一定是居心不良！”對朋友和老鄰居都如此，更何況外來戶和沒有特殊關(guān)系的人。

“外”這個(gè)詞在中國還有遠(yuǎn)近之分。外國人辦事不順利，因?yàn)樗麃碜浴巴鈬保秽l(xiāng)民辦事不順利，因?yàn)樗麃碜浴巴忄l(xiāng)”。一個(gè)外來者，背景不明，又不想讓別人知道，情況一會(huì)更糟糕。謹(jǐn)慎的中國人免不了會(huì)想：“誰知道這家伙葫蘆里裝的是什么藥？”

一個(gè)旅行者碰巧迷路，來到了一個(gè)村莊。假如天黑了，尤其時(shí)間太晚，他會(huì)經(jīng)常發(fā)現(xiàn)，沒人出來給他指路。筆者有一次就曾來來回回轉(zhuǎn)了幾個(gè)小時(shí)，花錢也雇不到向?qū)В踔谅牪坏揭痪渲嘎返脑挕?/p>

中國學(xué)生上課時(shí)一律扯著嗓子念，既損害他們的發(fā)聲器官，也令外國人心煩意亂。這是一種“傳統(tǒng)”，如果想刨根究底，人們會(huì)告訴你，聽不到讀書聲，老師就不知道學(xué)生是否在專心學(xué)習(xí)。學(xué)生背誦時(shí)，要背對老師，老師以這種奇怪的做法來確保學(xué)生不偷看。

并不是所有的文明都主張要款待陌生人。和東方人實(shí)際接觸之后，所羅門關(guān)于對陌生人要謹(jǐn)慎的箴言獲得了新意。但中國人的謹(jǐn)慎已到了高不可攀的地步。一位中國老師受雇于外國人，收集童謠。一次，他聽到一個(gè)小男孩正在哼一支不清楚的歌謠，就讓他再唱一遍，可是，孩子嚇得慌忙逃走了，再也沒露面。小男孩的行為是中國這種環(huán)境中典型的產(chǎn)物。一個(gè)人精神失常，離家出走，他的朋友四下里打聽，希望能得到一點(diǎn)兒有關(guān)他的消息，其實(shí)，他們很清楚，這樣做，希望是非常渺茫的。假如有人說曾見他來過，后來又走了。尋找的人會(huì)很自然地問他：你當(dāng)時(shí)做了些什么？這樣，麻煩就來了。所以，如果詢問者是個(gè)陌生人，人們就一定會(huì)回答：不知道。這也是最安全的辦法。

根據(jù)我們的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，在中國，陌生人尋找當(dāng)?shù)匾晃挥忻娜宋铮矔?huì)出現(xiàn)類似的情況。有一次，一個(gè)看似來自鄰省的人，到某個(gè)村子去找一位名人，最后卻失望地發(fā)現(xiàn)，全村人眾口一辭，都斷然否定認(rèn)識(shí)這么一個(gè)人，而且還信誓旦旦地表示，連聽說都沒聽說過。這些謊言并不是事先串通好，編造出來的，因?yàn)榇迕駛儧]有串通的時(shí)間，他們不約而同地這樣做，就像北美的草原犬鼠，一見到陌生的東西，就一頭扎進(jìn)洞里，是出于一種本能。

在所有的這類事情中，一句簡單的招呼，都可以顯示出它與當(dāng)?shù)胤窖缘募?xì)微差別。鄉(xiāng)下人會(huì)經(jīng)常遇到盤問，他家住在哪兒，距離某某地有多遠(yuǎn)等等，似乎在確保他不是在騙人。同樣，學(xué)生入“闈”時(shí)，不僅要詢問他的學(xué)歷。還可能要盤問他寫的文章，以及是如何完成的。用這種方法，欺騙就很容易被識(shí)破，事實(shí)上也經(jīng)常如此。一個(gè)人不要企圖冒充當(dāng)?shù)厝耍驗(yàn)榭谝魰?huì)泄露他的籍貫。陌生人不僅很難獲得某人的下落，而且他的行為還會(huì)引起普遍的猜疑，就像前面說的那個(gè)例子，整個(gè)村子都在猜疑。有幾個(gè)中國人曾長期在一家外國醫(yī)院接受治療，筆者讓另幾個(gè)中國人去找他們，結(jié)果，一個(gè)也沒找到。有時(shí)，即使一個(gè)人鼓起勇氣和陌生人交談，也至多只說出自己的姓，絕對不會(huì)泄露自己的名字，因?yàn)橥盏娜水吘购芏唷＿€有時(shí)，送信者苦苦尋找的村子就在眼前，卻會(huì)莫名其妙地找不到，甚至連最后的一點(diǎn)線索也消失了。就在前面說的那個(gè)例子中，陌生人在方圓一、兩里路內(nèi)都沒有找到的那位名人，其住處實(shí)際上距他只有幾十米遠(yuǎn)。

筆者認(rèn)識(shí)一位老人，他有一個(gè)富有的鄰居。兩人從前曾同是中國某一秘密教派的成員。可當(dāng)人們詢問起他鄰居的情況時(shí)，卻發(fā)現(xiàn)這兩個(gè)從小一起長大，相鄰而居六十余年的老人從未接觸過。“怎么會(huì)這樣呢？”“因?yàn)樗狭耍苌偻獬觥！薄澳銥槭裁床怀Ｈタ赐務(wù)勥^去的時(shí)光呢？你們相處得不好嗎？”老人不自然地微微一笑，然后搖搖頭：“不，我們相處得很好。但他富有，我貧窮，如果我去他家，就會(huì)惹人說閑話：他去那兒干什么？”

中國人相互猜疑有一個(gè)明顯的表現(xiàn)：他們從內(nèi)心里不愿被單獨(dú)留在房間里。否則，一定會(huì)覺得不自在，還可能會(huì)溜出房間，到走廊里去，似乎在說：“別懷疑我，瞧，我沒拿你的任何東西，我不在屋子里。”自重的中國人拜訪外國人時(shí)也會(huì)這樣。

沒有什么能比非正常性死亡更易引起強(qiáng)烈的猜疑。典型的例子是已婚女兒的死亡。雖然，像前面說的，女兒活著時(shí)，父母無力保護(hù)她；可假如她死得可疑，她的父母在一定程度上就獲得了主動(dòng)權(quán)。女兒自殺后，他們就不再像過去那樣俯首屈從，而是盛氣凌人地提出一些苛刻的條件。這種情況下，拒絕和女方娘家達(dá)成一致，就會(huì)引起一場持久、惱人的官司。娘家的目的首先是為了報(bào)復(fù)，不過，最終目的只是為了保住“面子”。

中國有句古話：瓜田不納履，李下不整冠。這句箴言表達(dá)了一個(gè)普遍的真理：在中國，走路都要小心翼翼。這就是中國人生性沉默的原因，我們對此有時(shí)十分難以忍受。他們都知道，一言不慎，就可能釀成大禍，而我們對此一點(diǎn)也不懂。

中國人的商業(yè)活動(dòng)表明中國有各種各樣的猜疑形式。買方、賣方彼此都不信任，只有嚴(yán)格保持中立的第三者才能促使買賣成交，他們只有通過討價(jià)還價(jià)才能獲利。而且直到付款，交易才算做成。情況更復(fù)雜時(shí)，還需要形諸文字，因?yàn)椤翱湛跓o憑”，必須“立此存照”。

中國金融市場的混亂，部分原因在于錢莊對顧客有根深蒂固的不信任，顧客也有充分的理由表明自己不應(yīng)該相信錢莊。南方的假外幣，各地的假銀元，都是這個(gè)偉大的商業(yè)性民族生性猜疑的明證。他們決心做成一樁交易時(shí)，非常精明；不愿做時(shí)，表現(xiàn)得更精明。顧客出于猜疑，總希望天黑以后使用銀子，這一點(diǎn)中外皆然。如果城里的商店建議等到第二天，這是明智之舉，也不足為奇。

中國的銀行系統(tǒng)似乎包羅萬象，錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜。我們從馬可·波羅的游記中可以知道，中國很早就使用銀行票據(jù)了。但并不普遍，好像被嚴(yán)格地限制在一定的流通領(lǐng)域。兩個(gè)相距僅十里的城市，各自的錢莊都有充足的理由不收對方的票據(jù)。

中國的利潤率很高，在24%一36%之間，甚至更高，這也是中國人彼此不信任的表現(xiàn)。這種暴利大部分不是錢本身的利潤，而是巨大冒險(xiǎn)的保險(xiǎn)費(fèi)，我們所熟悉的西方的投資方式，他們幾乎沒有，這不是因?yàn)榈蹏Y源開發(fā)不足，而是因?yàn)槿藗兤毡楸舜瞬恍湃危叭松鸁o信不立”，根據(jù)這一點(diǎn)，在將來的很長一段時(shí)間內(nèi)，在許多問題上，中國人仍將表現(xiàn)出猜疑的特點(diǎn)，這必定會(huì)極大地?fù)p害他們的利益。

幾年前，有家報(bào)紙對紐約華人的情況作過詳細(xì)的報(bào)道，其中有個(gè)荒謬的例子可以說明中國商業(yè)場中的猜疑。中國人在其他城市建立的機(jī)構(gòu)大概也是大同小異。在紐約，他們有自已的市政府，有十二個(gè)中政領(lǐng)導(dǎo)。這些人把錢和中政府的文件鎖在一個(gè)大保險(xiǎn)柜中，為確保絕對安全，他們不用美國銀行用的那種復(fù)雜、美觀的號(hào)碼鎖，而是用十二把銅掛鎖（中國式的）。每人只掌一把鑰匙，要想打開保險(xiǎn)柜，必須十二人全部到齊，每人開一把鎖。不幸的是，一位杰出的高級(jí)中政官突然去世了，整個(gè)市政事務(wù)立刻陷入了極度混亂中，因?yàn)槟俏皇姓俚蔫€匙找不到了。即使找到，也沒人敢代他開鎖，人們相信死者會(huì)嫉妒他的繼承人，讓他也患上自己的那種病，這一迷信的觀念太令他們恐懼了。直到經(jīng)過特殊的選舉補(bǔ)了空缺之后，市政府才取出錢支付喪葬費(fèi)。這件小事，的確是一扇窗口，通過它，人們可以發(fā)現(xiàn)中國人的一些主要特征一一富有組織才能、商業(yè)才能，互相猜疑，極度的輕信以及對西方制度和文明不言而喻的蔑視。

中國的政府機(jī)構(gòu)中也不乏相互猜疑的例子。宦官是亞洲典型的現(xiàn)象，中國古亦有之。但在目前的這個(gè)王朝，滿族人采用了卓有成效的辦法，使這批危險(xiǎn)人物不再像過去那樣有權(quán)力來危害人民了。

滿人在中國是征服者，漢人是被征服者，雙方在政府中難免相互猜疑，產(chǎn)生趄齲。六部長官及副職由哪族人來擔(dān)任必須妥善安排，這樣才能維持國家機(jī)器的平衡。檢察院在很大程度上，也起到同等作用。

對那些熟悉中國政府內(nèi)部情況的人，我們不能不承認(rèn)他們說得對；中國人的普通社會(huì)生活中充滿猜疑，官場也不例外。它不可能是另外一種情況，實(shí)際上乃中國人的本性使然。上級(jí)害怕下級(jí)競爭，時(shí)刻提防下級(jí)；下級(jí)的宦海浮沉又隨時(shí)會(huì)受上級(jí)影響，他們也在猜疑上級(jí)。而整個(gè)官僚階層又對強(qiáng)大的文人階層和普通百姓存有戒備之意。中國有許多宗教團(tuán)體是半政治性的，這就是后一種情況的顯著表現(xiàn)。它們已使整個(gè)帝國變得像一團(tuán)馬蜂窩。地方政府禁止節(jié)欲者團(tuán)體集會(huì)，比如有名的三星會(huì)，它只不過想禁止鴉片、煙和酒，打翻衙門里貪婪的“虎狼”的筵宴。他們并不企圖謀反，可官府一直這樣認(rèn)為，他們也就只能如此。所有的秘密宗教都企圖謀反，包括三星會(huì)，這樣猜疑，會(huì)使事情變得容易處理。無論什么時(shí)候只要有異常情況，政府立即行動(dòng)，把為首的抓住，或流放，或殺掉，恐懼就可緩解一陣子了。

強(qiáng)烈的猜疑使中國人變得十分保守。他們不了解人口調(diào)查，政府偶爾需要，也會(huì)因猜疑而不能實(shí)行，哪怕是名義上也不行，人們總是立刻懷疑調(diào)查是別有用心的。筆者鄰村發(fā)生的一件事，可以證明這種猜疑真實(shí)不虛。有兄弟二人，聽說政府要進(jìn)行新的人口調(diào)查，便斷定這是強(qiáng)行遷民的預(yù)兆。按常規(guī)，遷民時(shí)，兄弟二人會(huì)留一人在家看守祖墳。弟弟料想自己很可能被征走，為了逃避長途跋涉的折磨，他立刻自殺了。這樣就將了政府一軍。

猜疑與保守，使中國青年從美國留學(xué)歸來后，一直步履維艱，困難重重。它們也同樣阻礙了中國對鐵路的引進(jìn)。中國所需要的改革也因政府的猜疑而長期遭到禁止。三十多年前，一位著名的政治家，聽了鑄造小銀幣之重要性的意見時(shí)，非常坦率地說：帝國的貨幣，永不可改革，“如果試圖改變，百姓立即會(huì)認(rèn)為政府想從中牟利。”事實(shí)上，也的確如此。

開礦也同樣不可避免地遇到了巨大的阻力。如果可以成功的話，它會(huì)使中國變成一個(gè)富庶的國家。地下的“泥龍”，地上的猜疑和侵吞公款的行為，使得整個(gè)行動(dòng)連第一步都難以邁出。無論新事物會(huì)帶來多大的益處，益處有多明顯，只要引起猜疑，就別想引進(jìn)。已故的內(nèi)文斯博士在煙臺(tái)，為了將外國水果的優(yōu)良品種引進(jìn)中國，做了大量的工作，這些水果明顯會(huì)帶來巨大的收益。但他每前進(jìn)一步，都要被迫同猜疑作斗爭。缺乏善心或稍不耐煩，就可能早已取消這項(xiàng)計(jì)劃了。不過，效益一旦得到確證，猜疑就會(huì)自然地漸漸消失。調(diào)查養(yǎng)蠶和種茶對帝國的海關(guān)非常實(shí)際，可是對此感興趣的人們又怎么能違背過去的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，認(rèn)為這些調(diào)查不是為了征稅，而是為了促進(jìn)生產(chǎn)或提高技術(shù)勞動(dòng)的收益呢？誰聽說過這種事情？即便聽說了，誰又會(huì)相信呢？古老的荷蘭有句諺語可以形容中國人對這類事的態(tài)度：“狐貍跳進(jìn)鵝毛筆管時(shí)，卻說：‘各位早晨好’。”

下面我們將探討一下這個(gè)問題與外國人間的特殊關(guān)系。中國人在強(qiáng)烈地不信任外國人時(shí)，還經(jīng)常伴隨著一種根深蒂固的觀念：他們能夠輕而易舉地完成最難辦的事。假如一個(gè)外國人在某個(gè)他從前很少去的地方散步，中國人就會(huì)認(rèn)為他在察看風(fēng)水；假如他凝視一條河，他就是在測定其中是否有金子。人們認(rèn)為他能夠看穿地表，發(fā)現(xiàn)最值得攫取的東西。如果他在賑濟(jì)災(zāi)荒，人們就會(huì)認(rèn)為他最終是想掠走大批當(dāng)?shù)厝耍酵鈬プ隹嗔Α３鲇凇帮L(fēng)水”上的考慮，外國人經(jīng)常被禁止到城墻上去，他們的建筑物也必須嚴(yán)格控制，像帝國的邊界線一樣明確。中國人似乎缺乏自然一致性的觀念。巴伯先生曾提起四川某山區(qū)的一句諺語：外長罌粟內(nèi)藏煤。這并不僅僅是一種無知的觀念。帕普利教授說，北京的一位高級(jí)官員也告訴過他同樣的話，并且在不知開采速度的情況下，把它作為反對過快開采煤礦的根據(jù)。己故的政治家文祥，曾讀馬丁博士的《基督教的證明》一書，當(dāng)有人問起他的看法時(shí)，他回答，他準(zhǔn)備接受該書科學(xué)的部分，但宗教部分，關(guān)于地球繞著太陽旋轉(zhuǎn)的斷言，則會(huì)令他難以置信。

外國人進(jìn)入中國完全超出了他們目前的承受能力。梵·瑞恰斯芬男爵騎馬在鄉(xiāng)間游歷，在四川人看來，完全是一種漫無目的的行為，因此把他想像成一個(gè)亡命之徒。很多中國人第一次見到外國人，會(huì)產(chǎn)生一種神秘的恐懼感，后來才發(fā)現(xiàn)這些野蠻人原來也都挺不錯(cuò)。許多中國婦女受到告誡，她們一旦進(jìn)入外國人的住所，外國人就會(huì)念動(dòng)致命的咒語，使她們著魔。如果她們最終被引誘進(jìn)去，她們千萬不能踩門檻或照鏡子，否則會(huì)不安全。

幾年以前，從內(nèi)地某省來的一位年輕學(xué)者——該省對外國人其實(shí)一無所知——經(jīng)過筆者的努力，答應(yīng)幫一位新來的外國人學(xué)漢語。他在那人家里住了幾星期后，想起他的母親需要他的照顧，就回家去了。臨行前，與筆者約定，某日趕回，可是，直到現(xiàn)在他也沒回來。住在外國人家里的那段日子，這個(gè)聰明的孔門弟子，從未喝過一口茶或吃過一樣?xùn)|西，唯恐吃進(jìn)了迷魂藥。有一次，他寫信給他的母親，告訴她，自己一切都很好。另一個(gè)老師就送給他個(gè)外國信封，并且還告訴他，只要用舌頭舔濕就可以封口。他卻急中生智，溫和地請那位老師幫他封口，因?yàn)樗麑Υ瞬辉谛小?/p>

中國人拒絕接受外同人印刷的漢語書，也是由這種觀念導(dǎo)致的。人們普遍相信，書中放了迷魂藥，油墨味就是它發(fā)出來的。藥是在排版印刷時(shí)就摻進(jìn)去了。有時(shí)，還會(huì)聽到讀了外國人的書，就會(huì)成為外國人的奴隸的傳聞，據(jù)說有個(gè)小伙子對此不太相信，就讀了一本小冊子的開頭，馬上驚恐地把書扔掉，跑回家告訴他的朋友，假如誰讀了那個(gè)書后，說了謊言，將來就會(huì)下地獄。小販子也經(jīng)常發(fā)現(xiàn)，這些書送都送不出去，并不是因?yàn)闀胁粸槿酥膬?nèi)容受到敵視，而是因?yàn)槿藗儞?dān)心送書者會(huì)以此進(jìn)行敲詐勒索，這種做法在中國相當(dāng)普遍。

如果外國人不慎重，試圖記下一些孩子的名字，就會(huì)引起一片恐慌，而且也確曾使一所正在興辦的學(xué)校解散了。中國文字的羅馬拼音體系一開始引入，就遭到了懷疑與排斥。為什么外國人希望教學(xué)生寫一些他們的朋友讀不懂的文字？世界上任何解釋都不能消除中國老一輩人的疑心，他們認(rèn)為，漢字一直很完美，對下一代也有好處。外國人連自己的祖先都不知道是誰，和他們的發(fā)明相比，中國人的漢字不知要好多少倍。幾乎可以說，外國人的一切建議都會(huì)受到普遍的排斥。其原因很明顯，就因?yàn)槭峭鈬说慕ㄗh。這種“順而不從”的性格使你的中國朋友，以最溫和而又最明確無誤的方式讓你確信，你的建議非常令人敬佩，不過，也非常荒謬。

諷刺是西方人手中的一種便利的武器，可它完全不適合中國人的口味。外國人對待中國人決不是根據(jù)自己的愿望或需要。有個(gè)外國人對仆人的失職和過錯(cuò)深惡痛絕，就用英語罵他“騙子”。仆人就向一位漢語很好的女士請教，當(dāng)他得知這個(gè)用來說他的詞的意思時(shí)，說他“受到了沉重的打擊”。清朝的高級(jí)官員曾盜用湯姆先生《伊索寓言》澤文的版本，他們的思維模式和這個(gè)仆人一模一樣。不過，其中會(huì)說話的鵝、老虎、狐貍和獅子不能不令他們想到背后隱晦的含義，為防患于未然，他們便查禁了所有的版本。對外國人最頑固的不信任的例子可以在遍布大部分中國的醫(yī)院和診所里發(fā)現(xiàn)。在人數(shù)眾多的患者中，許多人對外國醫(yī)生的善良和醫(yī)術(shù)表現(xiàn)出不言而喻的誠意和令人感動(dòng)的信任。但也有不少人，仍相信荒謬的謊言，說外國人用人的眼睛和心臟做藥，外科醫(yī)生有將人切成碎肉的嗜好，外國人還將中國兒童藏在地窖中，進(jìn)行可怕的處理等等。除了小心探問，這些人的感情我們一般了解得很少。一、兩年之后，這些機(jī)構(gòu)的廣泛成功可望能夠像大風(fēng)吹散塵土一樣，驅(qū)散所有的這些無稽之談。不過，它們一有機(jī)會(huì)，就會(huì)瘋狂地蔓延，像溫暖潮濕八月中的霉菌。

雖然在中外關(guān)系史上，外國人存在著嚴(yán)重失誤，但整個(gè)歷史是中國人懷疑與搪塞的歷史。這是一段令人厭倦的回憶，其間的教訓(xùn)完全是由徒勞無功的交往者造成的。但在中國，私人常常被迫充當(dāng)外交家，他們都很清楚應(yīng)該怎樣做，我們可以舉一個(gè)典型的例子進(jìn)行說明。一個(gè)外國人提出要在中國內(nèi)地某城市租賃一處住所，當(dāng)?shù)毓賳T則提出種種借口加以搪塞，在一次安排好的會(huì)見中，這個(gè)外國人身著中國服裝，帶著紙和筆，到了見面地點(diǎn)。初步交談之后，他慢慢地取出文具，擺好紙，擰開筆，檢查一下墨水，神情嚴(yán)肅專注。中國官員懷著強(qiáng)烈的興趣看他做完這一切，好奇地問：“你在做什么？”外國人解釋道，他只是準(zhǔn)備好文具，“僅此而已，沒有什么。”“文具？準(zhǔn)備文具干什么？”“記下你的答復(fù)。”這位官員急忙向外國客人保證，住所一定會(huì)解決，這樣做完全沒有必要。可他下次再聽到這個(gè)神秘的記錄時(shí)，怎么能保證承認(rèn)，其中的內(nèi)容都是他說的？

中國是個(gè)謠言泛濫的國家，它們經(jīng)常使人心中充滿恐懼。幾年前，新加坡的中國人報(bào)告說，苦力們堅(jiān)決拒絕天黑以后走某一條街道，因?yàn)樵谀抢飼?huì)突然神秘地被砍去腦袋。帝國可能永遠(yuǎn)也不能從恐懼中解脫出來了，對于有關(guān)的人，這些恐懼就像1789年法國革命中的巴黎人感到的一樣真切。無節(jié)制的輕信和相互猜疑是恐怖的謠言產(chǎn)生、彌漫的沃土。當(dāng)它們與外國人有關(guān)時(shí)，痛苦的經(jīng)驗(yàn)表明，絕不可掉以輕心，在它們剛一產(chǎn)生時(shí)，就應(yīng)該查清。如果當(dāng)?shù)毓賳T認(rèn)真查處，就不會(huì)導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重的后果。如果不進(jìn)行制止，任其漫延，就會(huì)產(chǎn)生像天津大屠殺那樣的慘劇。整個(gè)中國都適宜于謠言的迅速傳播，幾乎沒有一個(gè)省沒有產(chǎn)生過謠言。為了徹底鏟除謠言，時(shí)間就應(yīng)像地質(zhì)新紀(jì)元一樣被視為至關(guān)重要的因素，最好的辦法，是以勿容置疑的實(shí)例，使中國人相信，外國人是他們真誠的祝愿者，一旦樹立了這一堅(jiān)定信念，“四海之內(nèi)皆兄弟”將會(huì)在人類史上第一次成為現(xiàn)實(shí)。

英文原版：

XXIV. MUTUAL SUSPICION

TT is an indisputable truth that without a certain amount of mutual confidence it is impossible for mankind to exist in an organised society,especially in a society so highly organised and so complex as that of China.Assuming this as an axiom, it is not the less necessary to direct our attention to a series of phenomena,which,however inharmonious they may appear with our theory,are sufficiently real to those who are acquainted with China.Much of what we shall have to say of the of the Chinese is by no means peculiar to this peo- ple;it is rather a trait which they share in common with all Orientals,the manifestations of which are doubtless much modified by the genius of Chinese institutions.The whole subject is intimately connected with that of mutual responsi- bility,already discussed.Nothing is more likely to excite the suspicion not of the Chinese only but of any human being, than the danger that he may be held to account for something which has no concern whatever with himself,but the conse- quences of which may be most serious.

The first manifestation which attracts a stianger's attention of the chronic suspicion prevailing in China is the existcnce in all parts of the Empire of lofty walls which enclose all cities. The fact that the word for city is in Chinese the equivalent for a walled city,is as significant as the fact that in the Latin language the word which denoted army also meant drill or practice.The laws of the Empire require that every city shall be enclosed by a wall of a specified height.Like other laws this statute is much neglected in the letter,for there are many cities the walls of which are allowed to crumble into such decay that they are no protection whatever,and we know of one district city invested by the T‘a(chǎn)i-p'ing rebels and occu- pied by them for many months,the walls of which,although utterly destroyed,were not restored at all for more than a decade afterwards. Many cities have only a feeble mud rampart,quite inadequate to keep out even the native dogs, which climb over it at will. But in all these cases the occa- sion of these lapses from the ideal state of thirgs is simply the poverty of the country.Whenever there is an alarm of trouble,the first step is to repair the walls.The execution of such repairs affords a convenient way in which to fine officials or others who have made themselves too rich in too short a time.

The firm foundation on which rest all the many city walls in China is the distrust which the government entertains of the people. However the Emperor may be in theory the father of his people,and his subordinates called"father and mother oficials,"all parties understand perfectly that these are purely, technical terms,like plus and minus,and that the real relation between the people and their rulers is that between children and a stepfather.The whole history of China appears to be dotted with rebellions,most of which might apparently have been prevented by proper action on the part of the general government if taken in time.The government does not ex- pect to act in time. Perhaps it does not wish to do so,or perhaps it is prevented from doing so. Meantime,the people slowly rise,as the government knew they would,and the offi- cials promptly retire within these ready-made fortifications, like a turtle into its shell or a hedgehog within its ball of quills,and the disturbance is left to the slow adjustment of the troops.

The lofty walls which enclose all premises in Chinese,as in other Oriental cities and towns,are another exemplification of the same traits of suspicion.If it is embarrassing for a foreigner to know how to speak to a Chinese of such places as London or New York,without unintentionally conveying the notion that they are“walled cities,”it is not less difficult to make Chinese who may be interested in Western lands understand how it can be that in those countries people often have about their premises no enclosures whatever.The im- mediate,although unwarranted,inference on the part of the Chinese is that in such countries there must be no bad char- acters of any kind.

The almost universal massing of the rural Chinese popula- tion in villages,which are in reality miniature cities,is another illustration of mutual suspicion.The object is protection,not from a foreign enemy,but from one another. The only excep- tions to this agglomeration of Chinese dwellings with which we are acquainted,is in the case of some mountainous regions where the land is so barren that it is incapable of supporting more than one or two families,the people being so poor that they have no dread of thieves,and the province of Szechuan, in which,as Mr.Baber mentions,"the farmer and his work- people live,it may be said,invariably in farm-houses on their land,and the tendency is to the separation rather than to the congregation of dwellings.”If this exception to the general rule was made because the expectation of peace in that re- mote province was thought to be greater than in others,as Baron von Richthofen suggested,it has proved,as Mr.Baber remarks,an expectation which has suffered many and grievous disappointments,especially—although after a long-previous peace-in the days of the T'ai-p'ing rebels.

A most significant illustration of the Chinese—and also Oriental—suspicion found in social life is to be seen in the theory and practice in regard to woman.What that theory is is sufficiently well known.An entire chapter would scarcely do justice to this brancn of the subject.As soon as they come to the age of puberty,girls are proverbially a commod- ity as“dangerous as smuggled salt.”When once they are betrothed they are kept far more secluded than before.The smallest and most innocent circumstance is sufficient to start vicious and malevolent gossip,and it is a social axiom that scandals cluster about a widow's door.While Chinese women have incomparably more liberty than their sisters in Turkey or in India,*Chinese respect for women cannot be rated as high. Universal ignorance on the part of women,universal subordination,the existence of polygamy and concubinage一 these are not good preparations for that respect for woman- hood which is one of the fairest characteristics of Western civilisation.It would be easy to cite popular expressions in illustration of the views which the Chinese hold of women in general,and which may be regarded as the generalisations of long experience.She is spoken of as if it were her nature to be mean,short-sighted,and not to be trusted—she is consid- ered to be an incarnation of jealousy,as in the phrase,"it is impossible to be more jealous than a woman,"where the word "jealous"suggests,and is intended to suggest,another word with the same sound,but meaning“poisonous.”This theory is well embodied in a verse of ancient Chinese poetry,of which the following lines are a translation:

" The serpent's mouth in the green bamboo,

The yellow hornet's caudal dart;

Little the injury these can do;

More venomous far is a woman's heart."

*The existence of this liberty,is not,however,to be judged of by superficial indications.A lady who resided for some years in the Indian city of Delhi,and subsequently at the capital of the province of Shansi, remarked that fewer Chinese women were ordinarily to be seen upon the streets of the latter city,than Indian women npon the streets of the former one. Yet this circnmstance does not at all conflict with the truth of the statement to which this note is appended.

These views are incidentally exemplified with a fine and un- conscious impartiality in the very structure of the Chinese language,in a manner to which attention has been often directed.An excellent scholar in Chinese,in response to a request from the writer,examined with care a list of one hun- dred and thirty-five of the more common characters which are written with the radical denoting woman,and found that fourteen of them conveyed a meaning which might be classed as good,such as the words“good,""skilful,”and the like; of the remainder,thirty-five are bad,and eighty-six indifferent in meaning. But those classed as bad contain some of the most disreputable words in the whole language.The radical for woman combined with that denoting shield signifies“de- ceitful,fraudulent,villainous,traitorous,selfish”;while three women in combination convey the ideas of"fornication, adultery,seduction,to intrigue.”

There are said to be two reasons why people do not trust one another:first,because they do not know one another, and second,because they do. The Chinese think that they have each of these reasons for mistrust,and they act accord- ingly. While the Chinese are gifted with a capacity for com- bination which at times seems to suggest the union of chemical atoms,it is easy to ascertain by careful inquiry at the proper sources and at the proper times,that the Chinese do not by any means trust one another in the implicit way which the external phenomena might imply. Members of the same family are constantly the victims of mutual suspicion,which is fanned by the women who have married into the family,and who as sisters-in-law are able to do much,and who frequently do what they can,to foment jealousy between their husbands in regard to the division of the proceeds of the common labour.

Not to enlarge upon this aspect of domestic life,which by itself might occupy a chapter,we pass to the notice of the same general state of things among those who are not united by the complex ties of Chinese family life.A company of servants in a family often stand to one another in a relation of what may be called armed neutrality,that is,if they have not been introduced by some one who is responsible for them all. If anything comes out to the disadvantage of any one of them,his first question to himself is not,“How did the master find that out?”but“Who told him of me?” Even if the servant is well aware that his guilt has been proved,his first thought will be to show that some other servant had a grudge against him.We have known a Chinese woman to change colour and leave a room in great dudgeon on hearing loud voices in the yard,because she supposed that as there was an angry discussion,it must be about her,whereas the matter was in relation to a pile of millet stalks bought for fuel, for which a dealer demanded too high a price.

It is this kind of suspicion which fans the fires of dissension that are almost sure to arise when a servant has been unex- pectedly discharged. He suspects every one but himself,is certain that some one has been speaking ill of him,insists upon being told the allegations against him,although he knows that there are half a score of reasons,any of which would justify his immediate dismissal. His“face”must be secured,and his suspicious nature must be gratified.These occurrences take place in Chinese families as well as in foreign families with Chinese servants,but not in the same degree,because a Chinese servant has learned how far he can impose upon the good-nature of the foreigner,as he would never think of doing in the case of a Chinese master. It is for this reason that so many foreigners have in their employ Chinese servants whom they ought to have discharged long ago,and would have dis- charged if they had dared.They know that the mere pro- posal of such a thing will be the stirring up of a hornet's nest, the central figure of which will be the accused and“disgraced” servant,and they have not the courage to make a strike for liberty,lest in the case of failure their condition should be worse than before.

There is a story of an Austrian city which was besieged by the Turks in the middle ages,and which was just on the point of capture.At a critical moment an Austrian girl bethought herself of a number of bee-hives,which she at once brought and tumbled over the wall on the Turks,now almost up to the parapet.The result was a speedy descent on the part of the Turks,and the saving of the city.The tactics of a Chinese often resemble that of the Austrian maiden,and his success is frequently as signal,for this kind of a disturbance is such that, as a Latin professor said of a storm,one would much rather “face it per alium”than“face it per se.”No wonder that the adage runs,"If you employ one,do not suspect him;if you suspect him,do not employ him.”The Chinese way in such cases is simply to close one's eyes and to pretend that one does not see,but for a foreigner this may not be so simple and easy to achieve.

We find it necessary to impress upon our children,when they come to be of an age to mingle in the world on their own account,that it is well not to be too confiding in strangers. This kind of caution does not need to be conveyed to the Chinese in their early years,for it is taken in with their mother's milk.It is a proverb that one man should not enter a temple,and that two men should not look together into a well.And why,we inquire in surprise,should one man not enter a temple court alone?Because the priest may take advantage of the opportunity to make away with him! Two men should not gaze into a well,for if one of them is in debt to the other,or has in his possession something which the other wants,that other may seize the occasion to push his companion into the well!

Another class of examples of are those arising in the ordinary affairs of everyday life.There is a freedom and an absence of constraint in Western lands which in China is conspicuously absent.To us it seems a matter of course that the simplest way to do a thing is for that reason the best.But in China there are different and quite other factors of which account must be taken. While this is true in regard to everything,it is most felt in regard to two matters which form the warp and woof of the lives of most Chinese— money and food. It is very difficult to convince a Chinese that a sum of money,which may have been put into the hands of another to be divided between many persons,has been divided according to the theoretical plan,for he has no experience of any divisions of this sort,and he has had ex- tended experience of divisions in which various deductions in the shape of squeezes were the prominent features.In like manner,it is very hard to make an arrangement by which one Chinese shall have charge of the food provision for others,in which,if close inquiry is made,it shall not appear that those who receive the food suppose that the one who provides it is retaining a certain proportion for his own use. The dissatis- faction in such cases may possibly be wholly suppressed,but there is no reason to think that the suspicion is absent because it does not manifest itself upon the surface. Indeed,it is only a foreigner who would raise the question at all,for the Chinese expect this state of things as surely as they reckon on friction in machinery,and with equal reason.

It is the custom of waiters in Chinese inns,upon leaving the room of a guest who has just paid his bill,to shout out each item of the account,not in order to sound the praises of him who has spent most money—as some travellers have sup- posed—but for the much more practical purpose of letting the other waiters know that the one who thus publicly declares the receipts is not secreting a portion of the gratuity,or“wine- money,"which they invariably expect.

If any matter is to be accomplished which requires con- sultation and adjustment,it will not do in China,as it might in any Western land,to send a mere message to be delivered at the home of the person concerned,to the effect that such and such terms could be arranged.The principal must go himself,and he must see the principal on the other side. If the latter should not be at home,the visit must be repeated until he is found,for otherwise no one would be sure that the matter had not been distorted in its transmission through other media.

Frequent references have been made to the social solidarity of the Chinese.In some cases the whole family or clan all seem to have their fingers in the particular pie belonging to some individual of the family. But into such affairs a person with a different surname is,if he be a wise person,careful not to intrude any of his fingers,lest they be burned.It is indeed a proverb that it is hard to give advice to one whose surname is different from one's own.What does this fellow mean by mixing himself up in my affairs?He must have an object, and it is taken for granted that the object is not a good one. If this is true of those who are life-long neighbours and friends, how much more is it true of those who are mere outsiders,and who have no special relations to the persons addressed.

The character meaning"outside,"has in China a scope and a significance which can only be comprehended by degrees. The same kind of objection which is made to a foreigner be- cause he comes from an“outside”country,is made to a vil- lager because he comes from an“outside”village.This is true with much greater emphasis if the outsider comes from no one knows where,and wants no one knows what."Who knows what drug this fellow has in his gourd?"is the inevita- ble inquiry of the prudent Chinese in regard to a fresh arrival.

If a traveller happens to get astray and arrives at a village after dark,particularly if the hour is late,he will often find that no one will even come out of his house to give a simple direction. Under these circumstances the writer once wan- dered around for several hours,unable to get one of the many Chinese who were offered a reward for acting as a guide even to listen to the proposal.

All scholars in Chinese schools spend their time in shouting out their lessons at the top of their voices,to the great injury of their vocal organs,and to the almost complete distraction of the foreigner.This is"old-time custom,"but if the inquiry for the reason be relentlessly pushed,one is told that without this audible assurance the teacher would suspect that his pupils were not devoting their exclusive attention to their lessons. The singular practice of making each scholar turn his back upon the teacher during the recitation is likewise due to the desire of the teacher to be certain that the pupil is not furtively glancing at the book held in the master's hand!

It is not every form of civilisation which emphasises the duty of entertaining strangers.Many of the proverbs of Sol- omon in regard to caution towards strangers gain a new mean- ing after actual contact with Orientals,but the Chinese have carried their caution to a point which it would be hard to sur- pass.A Chinese teacher employed by a foreigner to pick up children's ballads and sayings heard a little boy singing a non- sense song which was new to the teacher,who asked the little fellow to repeat the words,whereupon the child fled terror stricken and was seen no more.He was a typical product of Chinese environment. If a man has become insane and has strayed away from home,and his friends scour the country- side,hoping to hear something of him,they know very well that the chances of finding traces of him are slight.If he has been at a particular place,but has disappeared,the natural inquiry of his pursuers would be,What did you do with him? This might lead to trouble,so the safest way,and the one sure to be adopted if the inquirer is a stranger,is to assume total ignorance of the whole affair.

The same thing will not seldom happen,as we have learned by experience,when a Chinese stranger tries to find a man who is well known.In a case of this sort,a man whose ap- pearance indicated him to be a native of an adjacent province inquired his way to the village of a man of whom he was in quest.But on his arrival he was disappointed to find that the whole village was unanimous in the affirmation that no such man was known there,and that he had never even been heard of.This wholesale falsehood was not concocted by any de- liberate prevision,for which there was no opportunity,but was simultaneously adopted by a whole villageful of people,with the same unerring instinct which leads the prairie-dog to dive into its hole when some unfamiliar object is sighted.

In all instances of this kind,the slight variations of local dialect afford an infallible test of the general region from which one hails.A countryman who meets others will be ex- amined by them as to his abode and its distance from a great number of other places,as if to make sure that he is not de- ceiving them.In the same manner,scholars are not content with inquiring of a professed literary graduate when he“en- tered,"but he will not improbably be cross-examined upon the theme of his essay,and how he treated it.In this way it is not difficult,and is very common,to expose a fraud.It is hopeless for a man to claim to be a native of a district the pronunciation of which differs by ever so little from his own, for his speech bewrayeth him.Not only will a stranger find it hard to get a clue to the whereabouts of a man,his possible business with whom excites instantaneous and general suspi- cion,but the same thing may be true,as we have also had re- peated occasion to know,in regard to a whole village.The writer once sent several Chinese to look up certain other Chinese who had been for a long time in a foreign hospital under treatment.Very few of them could be found at all. In one case a man who ventured to hold conversation with the strangers gave his surname only,which was that of a large clan,but positively refused to reveal his name,or"style."In another instance,a village of which the messengers were in search persistently retreated before them,like an ignus fatuus, and at last all traces of it disappeared,without its having been found at all! Yet once the strangers were probably within a mile or two of it,and in the case just referred to,the stranger who could not find the man for whom he was looking,proved to have been within ten rods of his dwelling at the time he was baffled.

.The writer is acquainted with an elderly man who has a well-to-do neighbour with whom he was formerly associated in one of the secret sects so common in China.On asking him about this neighbour,whose house was at a little distance from his own,it turned out that the two men,who had grown up together and had passed more than sixty years in proximity, never net.“And why was this?”"Because the other man is getting old and does not go out much.”“Why,then,do you not sometimes go to see him and talk over old times? Are you not on good terms?”The person addressed smiled the smile of conscious superiority,and shook his head."Yes," he said,"we are on good terms enough,but he is well off,and l,n,hehcieed make talk. _

A conspicuous illustration of the instinctive recognition by the Chinese of the existence of their own is found in the reluctance to be left alone in a room. If this should happen,a guest will not improbably exhibit a restless demeanour and will perhaps stroll out into the passage,as much as to say,"Do not suspect me;I did not take your things,as you see;I put them behind me.”The same thing is sometimes observed when a self-respecting Chinese calls upon a foreigner.

Nothing is so certain to excite the most violent suspicion on the part of the Chinese as the death of a person under circum- stances which are in some respects peculiar.A typical ex- ample of this is the death of a married daughter.Although, as already mentioned,the parents are powerless to protect her while she lives,they are in some degree masters ofthe situation when she has died,provided that there is anything to which any suspicion can be made to attach itself.Her suicide is an occasion on which the girl's parents no longer adopt their pro- verbial position of holding down the head,but,on the contrary, hold their head erect,and virtually impose their own terms. The refusal to come to an understanding with the family of the girl under such circumstances would be punished by a long and vexatious lawsuit,the motive for which would be in the first instance revenge,but the main issue of which would eventually be the preservation of the"face”of the girl's family.

There is an ancient saying in China,that when one is walk- ing through an orchard where pears are grown it is well not to adjust one's cap,and when passing through a melon patch it is not the time to lace one's shoes.These sage aphorisms rep- resent a generalised truth.In Chinese social life it is strictly necessary to walk softly,and one cannot be too careful.This is the reason why the Chinese are so constitutionally reticent at times which seem to us so ill-chosen.They know as we cannot that the smallest spark may kindle a fire that shall sweep a thousand acres.

The commercial life of the Chinese illustrates their in a great variety of ways.Neither buyer nor seller trusts the other,and each for that reason thinks that his in- terests are subserved by putting his affairs for the time being out of his own hands into those of a third person who is strictly neutral,because his percentage will only be obtained by the completion of the bargain.No transaction is considered as made at all,until"bargain money"has been paid. If the matter is a more comprehensive one,something must be put into writing,for"talk is empty,while the mark of a pen is final."

The chaotic condition of the silver market in China is due partly to the deep-seated suspicion which cash-shops entertain for their customers,and which customers cherish towards the cash-shops,in each case with the best grounds.Every chopped dollar in south China,every chopped piece of chopped silver in any part of China,is a witness to the suspicious nature of this great and commercial people;keen as they are to effect a trade,they are keener still in their reluctance to do so. The very fact that a customer,whether Chinese or foreign makes no difference,wishes to sell silver after dark is of itself suspi- cious,and it will not be surprising if every shop in the city should successively impart the sage advice to wait till to- morrow.

The banking system of China-appears to be very compre- hensive and intricate,and we know from Marco Polo that bank-bills have been in use from a very ancient period.But they are not by any means universal in their occurrence,and all of them appear to be exceedingly limited in the range of their circulation. The banks of two cities ten miles apart will not receive each other's bills,and for a very good reason.

The high rate of Chinese interest,ranging from twenty-four to thirty-six or more per cent.,is a proof of the lack of mutual confidence. The larger part of this extortionate exaction does not represent payment for the use of money,but insurance on risk,which is very great.The almost total lack of such forms of investments as we are so familiar with in Western lands is due not more to the lack of development of the resources of the Empire,than to the general mistrust of one another among the people."The affairs of life hinge upon confidence,"and it is for this reason that a large class of affairs in China will for a long time to come be dissociated from their hinges,to the great detriment of the interests of the people.

A curious example of Chinese commercial suspicion was afforded a few years ago by a paragraph in the newspapers, giving an account of the condition of things in the Chinese colony in the city of New York.The Chinese organisation probably does not differ from that of other cities where the Chinese have established themselves.They have a Municipal Government of their own,and twelve leading Chinese are the officers thereof.They keep the money and the papers of the Municipality in a huge iron safe,and to insure absolute safety the safe is locked with twelve ponderous brass(Chinese)pad- locks all in a row,instead of the intricate and beautiful com- bination locks used in the New York banks. Each one of the twelve members of the Chinese Board o Aldermen has a key to one of these padlocks,and when the safe is opened all twelve of them must be on hand,each to attend to the un- locking of his own padlock.One of these distinguished alder- men having inopportunely died,the affairs of the Municipality were thrown into the utmost confusion.The key to his pad- lock could not be found,and if it had been found no one would have ventured to take the place of the deceased,through a superstitious fear that the dead man would be jealous of his successor,and would remove him by the same disease of which he himself had died.Even the funeral bills could not be paid until a special election had taken place to fill the vacancy. This little incident is indeed a window through which those who choose to do so may see some of the prominent traits of the Chinese character clearly illustrated—capacity for organisa- tion,commercial ability,mutual suspicion,unlimited credulity, and tacit contempt for the institutions and inventions of the men of the West.

The structure of the Chinese government contains many examples of the effects of lack of confidence. Eunuchs are an essentially Asiatic instance in point,and they are supposed to have existed in China from very ancient times;but during the present dynasty this dangerous class of persons has been dealt with in a very practical way by the Manchus,and de- prived of the power to do the same mischief as in past ages.

Another example of the provision for that suspicion which must inevitably arise when such inharmonious elements as the conquerors and the conquered are to be co-ordinated in high places,is the singular combination of Manchus and Chinese in the administration of the government,as well as the arrange- ment by which the president of one of the Six Boards may be the vice-president of another.By these checks and balances the equilibrium of the state machinery has been preserved. The censorate furnishes another illustration of the same thing, on an extended and important scale.

Those whose knowledge of the interior workings of the Chinese administration entitles their opinions to weight,assure us that the same which we have seen to be characteristic of the social life of the Chinese is equally char- acteristic of their official life. It could not indeed be other- wise.Chinese nature being what-it is,high officials cannot but be jealous of those below them,for it is from that quarter that their rivals are to be dreaded.The lower officials,on the other hand,are not less suspicious of those above them,for it is from that quarter that their removal may be at any moment effected. There seems the best reason to believe that both the higher and the lower officials alike are more or less jealous of the large and powerful literary class,and the officials are uniformly suspicious of the people.This last state of mind is well warranted by what is known of the multitudinous semi- political sects,with which the whole Empire is honeycombed. A District Magistrate will pounce down upon the annual gath- ering of a temperance society such as the well-known Tsai-li, which merely forbids opium,wine,and tobacco,and turn over their anticipated feast to the voracious“wolves and tigers” of his yamen,not because it is proved that the designs of the Tsai-li Society are treasonable,but because it has been offi- cially assumed long since that they must be so.All secret societies are treasonable,and this among the rest. This generalised suspicion settles the whole question,and whenever occasion arises the government interposes,seizes the leaders, banishes or exterminates them,and thus for the moment allays its suspicions.

It is obvious that so powerful a principle as the one which we are considering must be a strong reinforcement of that innate conservatism which has been already discussed,to pre- vent the adoption of what is new.The census which is occa- sionally called for by the government does not occur with sufficient frequency to make it familiar to the Chinese,even in name. It always excites an immediate suspicion that some ulterior end is in view.How real this suspicion is,is illus- trated by an incident which occurred in a village next to the one in which the writer lived.One of two brothers,hearing that a new census had been ordered,took it for granted that it signified compulsory emigration.It is customary in such cases to leave one brother at home to look after the graves of the ancestors,but the younger of the two,foreseeing that he must go,promptly proceeded to save himself from the fatigues of a long journey by committing suicide,thus check- mating the government.

It is a mixture of suspicion and of conservatism which has made the path of the young Chinese who were educated in the United States such a bed of thorns from the time of their return to the present day;it is the same fell combination which shows itself in opposition to the inevitable introduction of railways into China.Suspicion of the motives of the gov- ernment will long prevent the reforms which China needs. More than thirty years ago,when the importance of the issue of small silver coinage was pointed out to a distinguished statesman in Peking,he replied—with great truth—that it would never do to attempt to change the currency of the Empire."Were it to be tried,the people would immediately suppose that the government gained some advantage by it, and it would not work."

Great obstacles are invariably thrown in the way of the opening of mines,which,if properly worked,might make China what she ought to be,a rich country.The“earth dragon"below ground,and peculation and suspicion above it,are as yet too much for anything more than the most rudi- mentary steps of progress in this most essential direction.No matter how great advantages may be or how obvious,it is almost impossible to get new things introduced when an all- pervading suspicion frowns upon them.The late Dr.Nevius, who did so much at Chefoo for the cultivation of a high grade of foreign fruits in China,fruits which visibly yield an enormous profit,was obliged to contend against this suspicion at every step,and one less patient and less philanthropic would have abandoned the project in disgust.When profits are once assured this state of things of course gradually dis- appears.But it is very real when inquiries are set on foot like those by the Imperial Maritime Customs in regard to the raising of silk-worms or tea. How can those who are inter- ested in these matters possibly believe,in defiance of all the accumulated experience of past ages,that the object of these inquiries is not a tax,but the promotion of production and the increase of the profits of skilled labour?Who ever heard of such a thing,and who can believe it when he does hear it?The attitude of the Chinese mind towards such projects as this may be expressed in the old Dutch proverb,“Good-morrow to you all,as the fox said when he leaped into the goose-pen!”

It remains to speak of the special relations of this topic to foreigners.The profound suspicion with which foreigners are regarded is often accompanied by,and perhaps largely due to,a belief,deep-rooted and ineradicable,that foreigners are able to do the most impossible things with the greatest ease. If a foreigner walks out in a place where he has not been often seen,it is inferred that he is inspecting thefêng-shui of the district.If he surveys a river,he is determining the exist- ence of precious metals. He is supposed to be able to see some distance into the earth,and to have his eyes on what- ever is best worth taking away.If he engages in famine re- lief,it is not thought too much to suppose that the ultimate object must be to carry off a large part of the population of the district,to be disposed of in foreign lands.It is by reason of these opinions on feng-shui that the presence of foreigners on the walls of Chinese cities has so often led to disturbances, and that the height of foreign buildings in China must be as carefully regulated as the location of a frontier of the Empire. The belief in the uniformity of nature appears to be totally lacking in China. Mr.Baber mentions a saying in Szechuan of a certain hill,that opium grows without,and coal within. But this is not simply a notion of the ignorant,for Professor Pumpelly declares that one of the high officials in Peking told him the same thing,and used the statement as an argument against the too rapid removal of coal deposits,the rate of the growth of which is unknown.It is said that the late states- man Wen Hsiang,having read Dr.Martin's“Evidences of Christianity,"was asked what he thought of it,to which he replied that the scientific part of the work he was prepared to accept,but the religious sections,in which the affirmation is made that the earth revolves around the sun,were more than he could believe!

The whole subject of the entrance of foreigners into China is beyond the Chinese intellect in its present state of develop- ment. Seeing Baron von Richthofen ride over the country in what appeared to the people of Szechuan a vague and purposeless manner,they imagined him to be a fugitive from some disastrous battle. Many a Chinese,who has afterwards come to understand the foreign barbarian all too well,has at first sight of his form,especially if he chanced to be tall,been seized with secret terror.Many Chinese women are persuaded that if they once voluntarily enter a foreigner's dwelling the fatal spell willwork,and they will be bewitched;if they are at last prevailed upon to enter,they will not on any account step on the threshold,nor look into a mirror when it may be offered to their sight,for thus they would betray away their safety.

A few years ago a young Chinese scholar from an inte- rior province,where foreigners were practically unknown,was engaged with some difficulty to come to the premises of the writer to assist a new-comer in acquiring the language.He remained a few weeks,when he recollected that his mother was very much in need of his filial care,and left,promising to return at a fixed date,but was seen no more. During all the time that he was on the foreigner's premises,this astute Con- fucianist never once took a sip of tea,which was brought to him regularly by the servants,nor ate a meal on the place,lest he should imbibe besotment. When a foreign envelope was handed to him by another teacher,that he might enclose the letter which he had written to his mother assuring her that thus far he was safe,and when it was shown him how this same envelope was self-sealing,a little moisture being applied by the tongue,his presence of mind did not for an instant forsake him,and he blandly requested the other teacher to do the sealing,as he was not expert at it.

It is this frame of mind which leads to the persistent notions in regard to Chinese books printed by foreigners.There is a widespread conviction that they are drugged,and the smell of printer's ink is frequently identified as that of the"bewildering drug”which is embodied in their composition.Sometimes one hears that it is only necessary to read one of these books, and forthwith he is a slave to foreigners.A slightly different point of view was that taken by a lad of whom we have heard, who,having read a little way in one of these tracts,threw it down in terror and ran home,telling his friends that if one should read that book and tell a lie,he would inevitably go to hell!Sometimes colporteurs have found it impossible to give away these books,not,as might be supposed,because of any hostility to the contents,of which nothing was known and for which nothing was cared,but because it was feared that the gift would be made the basis on which to levy a kind of blackmail,in a manner with which the Chinese are only too familiar.

The same presupposition leads to a panic if a foreigner injudiciously attempts to take down the names of Chinese children,a simple process which has been known to be emi- nently successful in breaking up a prospective school.The system of romanising Chinese characters must in its initial stages meet this objection and suspicion.Why should a for- eigner wish to teach his pupils to write in such a way that their friends at home cannot read what they say?All the explanations in the world will not suffice to make this clear to a suspicious old Chinese who knows that what has been good enough for the generations that have come before his children is good enough for them,and much better than the invention of some foreigner of unknown antecedents.It may almost be said that a general objection is entertained to anything which a foreigner proposes,and often for the apparent reason that he proposes it.The trait of“flexible inflexibility"leads your Chinese friend to assure you in the blandest but most unmistakable terms,that your proposal is very admirable and very preposterous.

Sarcasm is a weapon which,in the hands of a foreigner,is not at all to the taste of the Chinese.A foreigner whose knowledge of Chinese was by no means equal to the demands which he wished to make upon it,in a fit of deep disgust at some sin of omission or commission on the part of one of his servants,called him in English a"humbug.""Deep rankles in his side the fatal dart,"and at the earliest opportunity the servant begged of a lady whose Chinese was fully equal to the tax upon it,to be told what the dreadful word meant which had been thus applied to him.The mandarins who seized upon the blocks of Mr.Thom's translation of“Esop's Fables” were in the same frame of mind as the Peking servant.These officials could not help perceiving in the talking geese,tigers, foxes,and lions some recondite meaning which could be best nipped in the bud by suppressing the entire edition.

Some of the most persistent instances of Chinese suspicion towards foreigners are manifested in connection with the many hospitals and dispensaries now scattered over so large a pait of China.Amid the vast number of patients there are many who exhibit an implicit faith and a touching confidence in the good-will and the skill of the foreign physician. But there are many others,of whose feelings we know much less,except as the result of careful inquiry,who continue to believe the most irrational rumours in regard to the extraction of eyes and hearts for medicine,the irresistible propensity of the surgeon to reduce his patients to mince-meat,and the fearful disposi- tion said to be made of Chinese children in the depths of for- eign cellars.A year or two of experience of the widespread benefits of such an institution might be expected to dissipate such idle rumours as the wind disperses a mist;but they con- tinue to flourish side by side with tens of thousands of success- ful treatments,as mould thrives in warm damp spots during the month of August.

The whole history of foreign intercourse with China is a history of suspicion and prevarication on the part of the Chi- nese,while it doubtless has not been free from grave faults on the side of foreigners.It is a weary history to retrace,and its lessons may be relegated to those who are charged with the often thankless task of conducting such negotiations. But as it often happens that private persons are obliged to be their own diplomats in China,it is well to know how it should be done.We will give a sample case which is an excellent illustration. The question was about the renting of some premises in an interior city,to which a local official on various grounds took exception. The foreigner presented himself at the interview which had been arranged,clad in the Chinese dress,and armed with the necessary materials for writing. After the preliminary conversation the foreigner slowly opened his writing materials,adjusted his paper,shook out his pen, examined his ink,with an air of intense preoccupation.The Chinese official was watching this performance with the keenest interest and the liveliest curiosity.“What are you doing?” he inquired. The foreigner explained that he was simply getting his writing materials in order—“only that and nothing more.”"Writing materials! What for?”“To take down your answers,"was the reply.The official hastened to assure his foreign guest that this extremity would by no means be called for, as the premises could be secured !How could this magistrate be sure where he should next hear of this mysteri- ous document,the contents of which he could not possibly know?

China is a country which abounds in wild rumours,often of a character to fil the heart with dread. Within the past few years such a state of things has been reported among the Chinese in Singapore that coolies positively refused to travel a certain street after dark,on account of the imminent danger of having their heads suddenly and mysteriously cut off.The Empire is probably never free from such epochs of horror;to those concerned the terrors are as real as those of the French Revolution to the Parisians of I789.Infinite credulity and are the elements of the soil in which these fearful rumours thrive,and on which they fatten. When they have to do with foreigners,long and painful experience has shown that they must not be despised,but must be taken in the early stages of their development. None of them could do serious harm if the local officials were only sincerely inter- ested to stamp them out.In their ultimate outcome,when they have been suffered to grow unchecked,these rumours result in such atrocities as the Tientsin massacre.All parts of China are well adapted to their rapid development,and there is scarcely a province where they have not in some form oc- curred. For the complete removal of these outbreaks,the time element is as necessary as for the results of geologic epochs.The best way to prevent their occurrence is to con- vince the Chinese,by irrefragable object-lessons,that foreign- ers are the sincere well-wishers of the Chinese.This simple proposition once firmly established,then for the first time will it be true that“within the four seas,all are brethren.”