《中國人的性格》第二十六章 多元信仰（上）

《中國人的性格》是美國傳教士阿瑟·史密斯（明恩溥）基于1872年赴華傳教期間的社會觀察撰寫的著作，首版英文名《Chinese Characteristics》于19世紀(jì)末問世，。作者在華生活逾五十年，書中融合人類學(xué)視角與傳教士立場，記錄了晚清民眾的性格特征與文化形態(tài)。

全書以27個主題章節(jié)剖析中國人行為模式，包含“保全面子”“省吃儉用”等生活哲學(xué)，以及“漠視精確”“因循守舊”等社會現(xiàn)象。通過對比西方工業(yè)文明，著重探討東方特有的生存韌性，如環(huán)境適應(yīng)力與疼痛耐受性。書中案例多源自山東鄉(xiāng)村生活經(jīng)歷，涉及衣食住行、孝悌觀念等主題，部分結(jié)論因宗教立場存在視角爭議。該著作開創(chuàng)西方研究中國國民性先河，被譯成多國文字，成為近代中西文化互鑒的重要文本。

第二十六章 多元信仰（上）

儒教，作為一種思想體系，是中華民族最偉大的智力成就之一，而儒家經(jīng)典對于西方讀者來說，又十分枯燥乏味。不過，僅僅仔細(xì)地閱讀，只能得到皮毛的印象，不思考其影響，簡直永遠不可能了解它們。中華民族是世界上最偉大的民族，“其有記載的歷史一直可以追溯到傳說中的遠古，她是世界上唯一沒有異化或崩潰的古老民族，也從未被任何民族，從她自古生存的那片土地上驅(qū)逐出去。”一切都仍是那樣古老。對這一空前絕后的事實，我們該如何解釋呢？中國人口之眾多，在世界上無與倫比，他們自從開天辟地以來就居住在中華大地上，直到今天。到底是一種什么樣的神秘力量在支撐著這個古老的民族？在所有的民族都必然走向衰落、滅亡的宇宙命運面前，中華民族為什么成了一個例外，一直保持著如此頑強的生命力？

所有對此作過徹底調(diào)查的學(xué)者一致認(rèn)為，其他民族依靠物質(zhì)力量生存，而中華民族依靠的是道德力量。一位學(xué)習(xí)歷史的人或善于觀察的旅行家，只要了解人的本性，無不對中華民族奇跡般的道德約束力肅然起敬，這種約束力從古至今都發(fā)揮著巨大的作用。威廉姆斯博士說：“儒教對中華民族在追求理想人格，善良人性方面的影響，無論作何評價，都不過分，它所描繪的極高的道德標(biāo)準(zhǔn)對后世產(chǎn)生了不可估量的影響，以至于整個民族都要接受這一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的評判?！比R格博士說：“儒教在作為人的責(zé)任方面的精彩教誨，實在令人贊嘆，它所推崇的四個方面的教誨——文質(zhì)彬彬、謹(jǐn)守道德律令、關(guān)注精神、誠實，其中有三個方面是和摩西律法及福音書教誨是一致的，以此為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)建立的世界，必將是一個美好的世界。”

中國經(jīng)典中，完全沒有使人墮落的描寫，這一點經(jīng)常有人指出，它是中國經(jīng)典最偉大的特征之一，也是與印度、希臘、羅馬經(jīng)典最主要的區(qū)別之一。梅杜斯先生說：“無論是古代的，還是現(xiàn)代的，沒有任何一個民族擁有如此圣潔莊嚴(yán)的作品，里面完全沒有放蕩的描寫和粗魯?shù)恼Z言。整部書沒有一句話或注釋不能在英國任何一個家庭中大聲朗誦。在其他所有非基督教國家，偶像崇拜都是與人的犧牲及墮落的神圣化聯(lián)系在一起，并伴隨著狂歡放蕩的儀式。可在中國，所有的這一切，都找不到半點蹤影?！?/p>

皇帝就自己的統(tǒng)治直接向上天負(fù)責(zé)；民心振奮要比統(tǒng)治者的精神更為重要；統(tǒng)治者應(yīng)該德才兼?zhèn)洌浣y(tǒng)治也應(yīng)該以美德為基礎(chǔ)；人與人之間五種關(guān)系的復(fù)雜理論；己所不欲，勿施于人——所有這些觀念像山峰一樣，從普通的中國思想中脫穎而出，也吸引了所有觀察家的注意。在即將結(jié)束對中國人的論述時，我們想重點強調(diào)一下儒家思想體系的優(yōu)點，只有真正理解了這些優(yōu)點，我們才能真正地理解中國人。它們使中國人具備了一種服從道德的卓絕能力。每年的文官考試，都是就這些經(jīng)典出題，因此，中國人的思想統(tǒng)一，也達到了不可思議的地步，每一位候選者都把政府的穩(wěn)定當(dāng)成自己成功的前提，這無疑就是中華民族繁衍至今的首要因素。

中國人是否確實信仰過上帝，一直是個相當(dāng)令人感興趣的問題。那些嚴(yán)格考察過中國典籍的人向我們保證，學(xué)者們傾向于肯定回答。而另一些自稱具有獨立判斷能力的人則持否定態(tài)度。即使中國人確曾認(rèn)識到真正的上帝，那些觀念也全被遺忘了，猶如一枚古幣，上面的文字早已被積存的斑斑銹跡遮蓋了。對于提問者，這一問題可能非常重要，但對我們目前的研究來說，完全可以不考慮。我們目前所關(guān)注的既不是歷史問題，也不是理論問題，而是現(xiàn)實問題，也就是說，中國人和他們的神之間到底存在著一種什么樣的關(guān)系？

通過一些實例，我們不難追溯古代英雄和杰出人物從受尊敬到被紀(jì)念、再到被崇拜的各個階段。中國所有的神幾乎都是死去的人，祖先崇拜，在某種意義上，可以證明所有的死人都是神，在皇帝的恩準(zhǔn)下，各地不斷為生前就聞名遐邇的人物建廟立祠。隨著時間的流逝，很難說其中沒有人會成為整個民族的神，不管怎樣，作為一個民族，中國人是多神論者。

認(rèn)為人都有崇拜自然的傾向，這只是陳辭濫調(diào)。人們認(rèn)為那些不可抗拒的未知力量有感覺，因而便把它們擬人化，并加以崇拜，所以風(fēng)神廟、雷神廟等等隨處可見。北極星也是人們長期崇拜的對象。北京還有與皇帝崇拜有關(guān)的日壇與月壇。有些地方，對太陽的崇拜成了一種有規(guī)律的朝拜。二月的某一天被定為太陽的“生日”。這天一大早，村民們就起身東行，去迎接太陽；傍晚時分，再轉(zhuǎn)身向西，護送太陽踏上歸程。一年中對太陽的朝拜這時就算結(jié)束了。

自然崇拜中最平常的是崇拜樹，在某些省（例如河南的西北部），經(jīng)常可以見到大小幾百棵樹，都掛著小旗子，標(biāo)明此樹為何神居所。有時即使沒有這種外在的標(biāo)志，人們?nèi)詴V信不疑。如果破舊的草屋前長著一棵遒勁的老樹，簡直可以肯定，樹的主人一定不敢砍伐，因為中間住著神靈。

皇帝經(jīng)常被認(rèn)為是唯一有權(quán)祭天的人。祭祀大典獨特而有趣，由皇帝一人獨自在大壇上舉行。但對于全體中國人來說，他們自己不祭祀大地，也是一個新聞。每家朝南的正墻上都設(shè)有一個小小的神龕，有些地方稱為天地龕。大多數(shù)中國人證實，他們舉行的祭祀活動（祖先崇拜除外）只在初一或十五舉行，向大地祭拜或上供，有時是在新年伊始。祭祀時，沒有禱告，過一會兒，供品就被撤下，或像其他祭祀一樣，全部吃掉。這時，人們祭祀的是什么呢？有時，他們說是“天和地”，有時又說是“天”，也稱為“老天爺”。后一種稱呼經(jīng)常使人們認(rèn)為，中國人確實感覺到一個人格神?？墒钱?dāng)你知道，這個假想的“存在物”經(jīng)常與另一個被稱為“土地婆”的神相匹配時，這個推斷就帶來了嚴(yán)重的問題。有些地方，有六有十九祭祀“老天爺”的風(fēng)俗，因為這一天是他的生日。向給“老天爺”定生日的人追問：“老天爺”的父親是誰，他的生辰八字是多少，完全是多余的，因為他們對此也一無所知。很難使一個普通的中國人理解這些問題的實際意義。他只是接受傳統(tǒng)，做夢也不想提這些亂七八糟的問題。我們很少遇到一個中國人，除了知道“老天爺”掌管”氣候和收成之外，還能知道他的身世與品質(zhì)?！袄咸鞝敗边@個同在中國廣泛流傳，似乎表明他具有人格，但是，就我們所知，人們既沒有為他建廟，也沒有為他塑像，對他的祭祀和對“天與地”的祭祀也沒什么不同，似乎都是未經(jīng)解釋而保留下來的。

中國典籍中經(jīng)常用“天”這個詞來表示人的觀念和意志，但有時這兩方面的涵義都沒有。當(dāng)我們看“天即道”的注解時，感到其意義已模糊到了極點。這個詞在古代富有歧義，在日常生活中也一直非常含混。一個一向祭天的人，被強烈要求回答“天”是何意時，他經(jīng)?；卮鹫f，就是頭上那藍藍的天空。這表明，他的崇拜是與崇拜自然力量相一致的，只不過有的崇拜個體，有的崇拜群體而已。他們所信仰的，用愛默生的話說，是“蕭蕭細(xì)雨，萋萋芳草”，他們是泛神論者。這種缺乏明確涵義的人格化，正是中國“蒼天”崇拜的致命缺陷。

中國上層社會流行的似乎純粹是無神論，這與下層百姓的多神論、泛神論形成了鮮明的對比。從那些對此頗有研究的人提供的證據(jù)中，從無數(shù)的表面現(xiàn)象和“前定可能性”中，我們不能不得出如下結(jié)論：世界上沒有任何一個有教養(yǎng)的、文明人團體像儒家學(xué)者那樣是徹底的不可知論者和無神論者。＊“前定可能性”指的是宋代唯物主義注釋家對知識界的著名影響，中國經(jīng)典的注釋家、大學(xué)問家朱熹則是絕對的權(quán)威，任何對他的觀念的懷疑都被視為異端邪說。他的注釋不僅是唯物主義的，而且就我們理解，也是徹頭徹尾的無神論，它的影響遮蔽了原有經(jīng)典的教誨。

黃河從陜西和山西的深山峻嶺中流出后，繼續(xù)向東奔流數(shù)百里，注入大海。多少年來，它曾數(shù)次改道，跨越六、七個緯度，從揚子江口流至渤海口。但它流經(jīng)哪里，哪里哀鴻遍野，留下一片不毛的沙丘。宋代的注釋家?guī)淼奈ㄎ镏髁x洪流沖擊著中國思想的大河，情形與黃河別無

＊梅杜斯先生指出，任何一位思想前后一貫的儒家學(xué)者都是一個徹底的無神論者，但人類的本性很少有絕對的。一致性，不少儒家學(xué)者也信神，或者以為自己信神。二致。它泛濫了達七百年之久，留下的只是一片無神論的荒漠，再也不能為這個民族的靈魂提供任何有益的食糧了。道教退化成降妖捉怪的妖術(shù)，它曾從佛教中汲取大量的營養(yǎng)，以彌補自己的先天不足。佛教的引入是用以滿足儒教無法滿足的人的先天需求。它們的教育方式彼此影響，都產(chǎn)生了很大的變動。任何一個提供行善途徑的機構(gòu)都會得到人們的贊助，假如他手頭上碰巧有點積蓄，或者認(rèn)為贊助與某些行為一樣高尚的話。任何在某一方面似乎對人有利的神靈都會受到人們的垂青，就像個偶爾需要傘的人，遇到了一家傘店。一個英國人買傘，絕不會去問傘是何時發(fā)明，何時開始普遍應(yīng)用的，中國人對自己崇拜的神也同樣不過問其家世、經(jīng)歷。

經(jīng)常有些學(xué)術(shù)講座探討中國有多少佛教徒和道教徒。我們認(rèn)為，這個問題就像探討在聯(lián)合王國有多少人抽十便士一包的香煙、多少人吃菜豆。誰想抽十便士一包的香煙，又能弄到，誰就抽；誰想吃菜豆，又能買起，就吃好了。中國的兩種“教義”與此相同。誰想請和尚做法事，又能付得起錢，就去請和尚，他也因此就成了“佛教徒”。如果他想請道士，他也同樣可以去請，這也會使他成“道教徒”。如果他既請了和尚，又請了道士，那也無關(guān)緊要，人們可以說他既是“佛教徒”，又是“道教徒”。因此，一個人可以同時是儒教徒、佛教徒和道教徒，這并沒有什么不和諧的。佛教融合了道教，道教融合了儒教，最后儒教又融合了佛教與道教，因此，“三教合一”。

中國人同他們的“三教”之間的真正關(guān)系可以用盎格魯一撒克遜人同他們的語言間的關(guān)系來說明。他們在描述自己的語言構(gòu)成時說：“撒克遜語、諾曼底語和丹麥語就是我們的語言?！奔词箍梢源_定我們的祖先為誰，我們的血管中流動的撒克遜人和丹麥人的血液的比例并不能影響我們對語詞的選擇，它只受思維習(xí)慣和我們所期望的用途影響。學(xué)者會使用大量的拉丁詞語，混雜著很多丹麥語。而農(nóng)民則主要使用樸素的撒克遜語。但二者都以撒克遜語為基礎(chǔ)，其他語言只是補充。在中國，儒教是基礎(chǔ)，所有的中國人都是儒教教徒，所有的英國人都是撒克遜人。佛教和道教的觀念、用語和教規(guī)對儒教產(chǎn)生的影響，隨環(huán)境的變化而變化。但是對于中國人來說，“三教”融合而成的儀式中，并沒有什么不和諧或矛盾的地方，就跟我們在同一句話中使用了來源于不同民族的詞匯一樣。

兩種不同形式的信仰常常是互相排斥的，讓中國人相信這一點，并不容易。他們不懂什么是邏輯矛盾，也很少關(guān)心。他們本能地學(xué)會了一種調(diào)和不同命題的技巧。對于兩個本質(zhì)不相容的命題之間的關(guān)系，他們可以置之不理，強行把它們扯到一起。他們所接受的思維訓(xùn)練，也為融合不同形式的信仰作了充分的準(zhǔn)備，就像液體可以通過內(nèi)滲和外滲相互融合一樣。他們已把這種“信仰親和”推到了邏輯消亡的境地，即使告訴他們這一點，他們也不會明白，而且也無人可使他們理解。

教義的機械融合有兩個非常顯著的特點。第一是與中國人天生的喜歡秩序的本能相違背。中國人喜歡秩序，聞名遐邇，官階的精心劃分可以鮮明地體現(xiàn)這一點。帝國的所有官員，分為九品，每品都有嚴(yán)格的身份標(biāo)志和權(quán)限。但是中國的神靈世界卻找不到這等級森嚴(yán)的秩序，若問中國人“玉皇大帝”和“如來佛”誰權(quán)力大，簡直是白費口舌。即使在“萬神殿”中，諸神排列的秩序也是偶然的。暫時的，經(jīng)常交換不定。中國人的精神世界中，權(quán)威的地位也不固定，這種十足的混亂狀態(tài)，如果出現(xiàn)在地球上，一定是個無政府主義的世界。在供奉孔子、老子和如來佛的“三教堂”，排列秩序問題仍很突出。尊者位于中間，我們認(rèn)為，這個位置應(yīng)歸孔子，如果不是他——既然他不信神——就應(yīng)該是老子。可以肯定，這個問題在過去一直令人們爭論不休，但在我們聽到的所有的爭論中，總是佛祖受惠，盡管他是個外來戶。

另一個重要特征即是中國所有的信仰都把人的道德本質(zhì)貶得極低，猶如假貨幣頂替了真貨幣。儒教高尚的箴言一點也不能使人們消除對于道教經(jīng)常提到的妖魔鬼怪的恐懼。人們常說，世界上沒有任何文明民族比中國人更迷信、更輕信的了，這也確實不假。富有的商人和知識淵博的學(xué)者竟然每個月都要花兩天時間祭拜狐貍，黃鼠狼、刺謂、蛇和老鼠，它們被標(biāo)在一張紙上，又被稱為“大仙”，據(jù)說它們甚至可以左右人的命運。

數(shù)年前，中國一位著名的官員曾跪在一條被當(dāng)成水神的大蛇面前，據(jù)說該神是前朝的一位官員，他曾奇跡般地制服過泛濫的黃河。在洪水泛濫時，將蛇當(dāng)成神加以崇拜的現(xiàn)象十分普遍。在離黃河較遠的地方，人們會不分青紅皂白把一條生活在旱地的普通的蛇當(dāng)做神。如果河水退去，為紀(jì)念神恩，人們會做出一些非常富有戲劇性的事件來，他們把蛇放在盤子上，抬進廟里或其他公共場合，縣官和其他官吏每天都去燒香磕頭。在離黃河近的地方，河神一般認(rèn)為就是水神，但在稍遠的內(nèi)地，戰(zhàn)神關(guān)帝則被當(dāng)成雨神，有時，這二者會被大慈大悲的觀世音代替。在中國人眼里，這似乎并不是非理性的，因為他們從不考慮本質(zhì)融合的前提，即使告訴他們其中的荒謬，他們也不能理解。

我們還經(jīng)常注意到與求雨有關(guān)的另一個古怪而又極有意味的事實。在中國名著《西游記》中，有一個主要角色是一只從石頭里誕生的猴子，后來漸漸演化成了人，很多地方將這個想像之物當(dāng)成雨神來崇拜，以便排除河神和戰(zhàn)神。中國人從來就分不清真實與虛構(gòu)，還有什么例子能比這更具說服力？在西方人的觀念中，原因與結(jié)果相互關(guān)聯(lián)。但是中國人向一只并不存在的猴子求雨，他們的因果觀念是怎樣的呢？我們無論如何也捉摸不透。

中國人對神有各種各樣的描述，他們是如何對待這些神的呢？這個問題有兩個答案：崇拜與忽視。中國人每年在香燭、紙錢上要花多少錢，經(jīng)常有人作出估計。這種估計當(dāng)然是先把某個地區(qū)當(dāng)成一個樣本，計算出確切的數(shù)字，再以此推算帝國的其他地區(qū)，沒有什么比這種所謂的“統(tǒng)計”更不精確了，就像有人統(tǒng)計一大片蚊子，“數(shù)累了，接著就開始估計”。

把中華帝國當(dāng)成一個整體下結(jié)論，很容易犯錯誤。中國人到廟里拜神就是個突出的例子。從廣州登陸的旅行者，看到廟里香客如云，煙霧繚繞，會認(rèn)為中國人是世界上最盲目崇拜的民族之一。假如讓他先別急著下結(jié)論，等他游覽了帝國的另一端再說。他會發(fā)現(xiàn)，大量的廟宇早已荒頹無人，大部分時間，包括初一、十五也沒人進香，甚至在上香最盛行的時間——春節(jié)，也可能沒人進去。他會發(fā)現(xiàn)成千上萬被人們遺忘的古廟，盡管偶爾有人做些修復(fù)，但已無人知道它們修于何時，為何而修了。他會發(fā)現(xiàn)，一塊方圓數(shù)百里、人口稠密的地方，找不到一個教士，無論道士，還是和尚。在有些地方的廟里，他一般看不到婦女，孩子從小到大，沒有人教導(dǎo)他們皈依神的必要性。在帝國的其他地方，情況則截然不同，表面的崇拜儀式滲透到人們?nèi)粘Ｉ畹囊慌e一動中。

中國的宗教勢力可以和造成夏威夷群島的火山相比。在夏威夷最北部和最西部的島嶼上，很久以前，火山就死亡了，昔日的殘破不堪的火山口現(xiàn)在已長滿了茂盛的草木。但在東南部的島嶼上，大火仍然在熊熊燃燒，不時地從島中傳來劇烈的地震。在中國最古老的地區(qū)，也最少有人燒香拜佛，而在中國文明最輝煌時仍處于野蠻狀態(tài)的地區(qū)，偶像崇拜卻極為盛行。這些表面現(xiàn)象最容易產(chǎn)生誤導(dǎo)，在沒有進一步充分調(diào)查之前，很可能會被賦予言過其實的意義。

孔子曾說：“敬鬼神而遠之”，他的現(xiàn)代門徒也因此認(rèn)為，對中國五花八門的眾神敬而遠之是最明智的。與蒙古人、日本人相比，中國人相對沒有宗教偏見。在一些廟宇的門楣上，我們還經(jīng)常看到古老的格言：“敬神如神在”。以“如”字來傳達模棱兩可的含義，完全是中國人的本能使然。下面這一流行的說法，表現(xiàn)得更具體： 敬神如神來，

可來可不來。 敬神如神在， 不敬神 不怪。

比敬而遠之更進一步的是儀式崇拜，它有一定的程序和方法，這樣做的目的，無非想獲得外在的利益。

若說中國人似乎與神圣感毫不相干，也僅僅是一種禮貌的表述。我們已經(jīng)認(rèn)識到，中國人所有的信仰，要么是常規(guī)的儀式，要么是交易一一供給神多少就得到神的多少恩賜，對“老天爺”的崇拜最能表現(xiàn)這一本質(zhì)。問一個中國人，為什么要定期祭拜“老天爺”，他會告訴你：“因為我們從他那里得到糧食和衣服?！奔词顾麑Α袄咸鞝敗钡拇嬖诿Ｈ粺o知，仍會按儀式照行不誤。祖先們這樣，他也這樣做，至于是否有用，“誰知道呢？”

這種對待宗教儀式的態(tài)度是淺薄的。在一些被人遺忘的廟宇的門柱上，我們經(jīng)?？梢钥吹揭桓本哂兄S刺意味的對聯(lián)，較能說明這一點：

古廟無僧風(fēng)掃地 空室有情月作燈

中國人崇拜神，仿佛西方人參加保險。一般人認(rèn)為，“最好相信神存在”。也就是說，他們不存在，相信了也沒害處；假如確實存在，又被人忽略了，他們可能會生氣、報復(fù)。人們認(rèn)為神和人一樣，也受一定動機的支配，有句俗語說，一個羊頭（作供品）可換來一切。那些沒有特殊可以賜給人的神，例如“三圣”，常常是窮神，而觀世音菩薩和關(guān)帝則既尊貴又富有。

中國人對神的崇拜不僅僅建立在純粹假設(shè)的基礎(chǔ)上：信神“有益無害”，而且走到了令我們難以理解的地步。他們經(jīng)常說：“信，就有，不信，就沒有?！币菜坪跽J(rèn)為確是如此。這種表述方式（很難稱為思維方式），就像一個中國人說：“相信皇帝存在，就存在；不相信，就不存在。”這樣類比，中國人很樂于接受，可他們自己就好像不能通過一定的推理認(rèn)識到這一點。

英文原版：

XXVI. POLYTHEISM，PANTHEISM，ATHEISM

CONFUCIANISM,as a system of thought,is among the most remarkable intellectual achievements of the race. It is true that the Western reader cannot escape a feeling that much of what he finds in the Confucian Classics is jejune. But it is not merely by perusing them that we are to receive our most forcible impressions of what the Chinese Classics are and have been,but by contemplating their effects.Here is the Chinese race,by far the mightiest aggregation of human beings in any one nation on earth,"with a written history ex- tending as far back as that of any other which the world has known,the only nation that has throughout retained its nation- ality,and has never been ousted from the land where it first appeared,"existing,for aught that appears,in much the same way as in hoary antiquity.What is the explanation of this unexampled fact? By what means has this incomputable mass of human beings,dwelling on the Chinese plains from the dawn of history until now,been controlled,and how is it that they appear to be an exception to the universal law of the decay and death of nations ?

Those who have investigated this subject most thoroughly are united in declaring that this result is due to the fact that, whereas other nations have depended upon physical force,the Chinese have depended upon moral forces.No student of history,no observant traveller who knows human nature,can fail to be impressed,to the point of deep awe,with the thought of the marvellous restraining power which Chinese morality has exerted upon the race from the earliest times until now. "It would be hard to overestimate,"says Dr.Williams,"the influence of Confucius in his ideal princely scholar,and the power for good over his race which this conception has ever since exerted.The immeasurable influence in after-ages of the character thus portrayed proves how lofty was his own standard,and the national conscience has ever since assented to the justice of the portrait.”"The teaching of Confucian- ism on human duty,"says Dr.Legge,"is wonderful and ad- mirable.It is not perfect,indeed.But on the last three of the four things which Confucius delighted to teach—letters,ethics,devotion of soul,and truthfulness—his utterances are in harmony both with the Law and the Gospel.A world ordered by them would be a beautiful world.”

The entire freedom of the Chinese classical works from any- thing which could debase the mind of the readers is a most important characteristic which has been often pointed out,and which is in the greatest possible contrast to the literatures of India,Greece,and Rome."No people,"says Mr.Meadows, "whether of ancient or modern times,has possessed a sacred literature so completely exempt as the Chinese from licentious descriptions,and from every offensive expression.There is not a single sentence in the whole of the Sacred Books and their annotations that may not be read aloud in any family circle in England.Again,in every other non-Christian coun- try,idolatry has been associated with human sacrifices and with the deification of vice,accompanied by licentious rites and orgies. Not a sign of all this exists in China.”

The direct personal responsibility of the Emperor to heaven for the quality of his rule;the exaltation of the people as of more importance than the rulers;the doctrine that the vir- tuous and able should be the rulers,and that their rule must be based upon virtue;the comprehensive theory of the five relations of men to each other;the doctrine that no one should do to another what he would not have that other do to him—these points have stood out like mountain-peaks from the general level of Chinese thought,and have attracted the attention of all observers.In closing what we have to say of the Chinese,we wish to place emphasis upon the moral excellences of the Confucian system,for it is only by putting those excellences in their true light that we can hope to arrive at any just comprehension of the Chinese people.Those excellences have made the Chinese pre-eminently amenable to moral forces. The employment of the classical writings in the civil service examinations for successive ages has unified the minds of the people to a marvellous degree,and the powerful motives thus brought into play,leading every candi- date for a degree to hope for the stability of the government as a prerequisite to his own success,has doubtless been a principal factor in the perpetuation of the Chinese people to this present time.

Whether the Chinese ever did have a knowledge of one true God is indeed a point of considerable interest.Those who have examined most critically the classical writings of the Chinese assure us that the weight of scholarship is upon the side of the affirmative.By others who have a claim to an independent judgment,this proposition is altogether denied. If the Chinese ever did recognise the true God,that knowl- edge has certainly been most effectually lost,like an inscrip- tion on an ancient coin now covered with the accumulated rust of millenniums.To us the question seems to be of very much less practical concern than some would make it,and for our present purposes it may be altogether ignored. What concerns us in our present inquiry is neither a historical nor a theoretical matter,but a practical one,to wit,What is the relation which exists between the Chinese and their divinities?

It is in some cases not difficult to trace the stages by which the heroes and worthies of antiquity from being honoured came to be commemorated,and from being merely commem- orated came to be worshipped.All the gods of China may be said to have been dead men,and by the rite of ancestral worship it may be affirmed that in a sense all the dead men of China are gods.Temples are constantly erected by the consent of the Emperor,to men who while living had in vari- ous ways distinguished themselves.It is impossible to say that any one of these men may not in the slow evolution of ages rise to the highest place among the national divinities. There can be no doubt whatever that as a nation the Chinese are polytheistic.

That there is a tendency in man towards the worship of nature is a mere truism.The recognition of irresistible and unknown forces leads to their personification and to external acts of adoration,based upon the supposition that these forces are sentient. Thus temples to the gods of wind,thunder,etc., abound. The north star is an object of constant worship. There are temples to the sun and to the moon in Peking,in connection with the Imperial worship,but in some regions the worship of the sun is a regular act of routine on the part of the people in general,on a day in the second month which they designate as his“birthday.”Early in the morning the villagers go out to the east to meet the sun,and in the even- ing they go out towards the west to escort him on his way. This ends the worship of the sun for a year.

An exceedingly common manifestation of this nature-wor- ship is in the reverence for trees,which in some provinces(as, for example,in northwestern Honan)is so exceedingly com- mon that one may pass hundreds of trees of all sizes,each of them hung with bannerets indicating that it is the abode of some spirit.Even when there is no external symbol of wor- ship,the superstition exists in full force. If a fine old tree is seen standing in front of a wretched hovel,it is morally certain that the owner of the tree dare not cut it down on account of the divinity within.

It is often supposed that the Emperor is the only individual in the Empire who has the prerogative of worshipping heaven. The very singular and interesting ceremonies which are per- formed in the Temple of Heaven by the Emperor in person are no doubt unique.But it would be news to the people of China as a whole that they do not and must not worship heaven and earth each for themselves. The houses often have a small shrine in the front wall facing the south,and in some regions this is called the shrine to heaven and earth. Multitudes of Chinese will testify that the only act of religious worship which they ever perform (aside from ancestral rites) is a prostration and an offering to heaven and earth on the first and fifteenth of each moon,or,in some cases,on the be- ginning of each new year.No prayer is uttered,and after a time the offering is removed,and,as in other cases,eaten. What is it that at such times the people worship?Sometimes they affirm that the object of worship is“heaven and earth.” Sometimes they say that it is"heaven,"and again they call it“the old man of the sky.”The latter term often leads to an impression that the Chinese do have a real perception of a personal deity.But when it is ascertained that this supposed "person”is frequently matched by another called“grand- mother earth,"the value of the inference is open to serious question.In some places it is customary to offer worship to this“old man of the sky”on the nineteenth of the sixth moon,as that is his“birthday.”But among a people who assign a"birthday"to the sun,it is superfluous to inquire who was the father of"the old man of the sky,"or when he was born,for on matters of this sort there is absolutely no opinion at all.It is dificult to make an ordinary Chinese understand that such questions have any practical bearing. He takes the tradition as he finds it,and never dreams of raising any inquiries upon this point or any other.We have seldom met any Chinese who had an intelligible theory with regard to the antecedents or qualities of"the old man of the sky,"except that he is supposed to regulate the weather,and hence the crops. The wide currency among the Chinese people of this term,hinting at a personality,to whom,however,so far as we know,no temples are erected,of whom no image is made,and to whom no worship distinct from that to “heaven and earth”is offered,seems to remain thus far un- explained.

The word“heaven”is often used in the Chinese Classics in such a way as to convey the idea of personality and will. But it is likewise employed in a manner which suggests very little of either,and when we read in the commentary that "heaven is a principle,"we feel that the vagueness of the term is at its maximum.To this ambiguity in classical use corresponds the looseness of meaning given to it in everyday life. The man who has been worshipping heaven,upon being pressed to know what he means by"heaven,"will frequently reply that it is the blue expanse above.His worship is there- fore in harmony with that of him who worships the powers of nature,either individually or collectively. His creed may be described in Emersonian phrase as“one with the blowing clover and the falling rain.”In other words,he is a panthe- ist. This lack of any definite sense of personality is a fatal flaw in the Chinese worship of"heaven."

The polytheism and pantheism of the lower classes of Chi- nese are matched in the upper classes by what appears to be pure atheism. From the testimony of those who know most on this point,from the abundant surface indications,and from antecedent probability,we have no difficulty in concluding that there never was on this earth a body of educated and cultivated men so thoroughly agnostic and atheistic as the mass of Confucian scholars.*The phrase“antecedent prob- ability"refers to the known influence which has been exerted over the literati of China by the materialistic commentators of the Sung Dynasty.The authority of Chu Hsi,the learned expounder of the Chinese Classics,has been so overwhelming that to question any of his views has long been regarded as heresy.The effect has been to overlay the teachings of the Classics with an interpretation which is not only materialistic, but which,so far as we understand it,is totally atheistic.

After the Yellow River emerges from the mountains of Shansi and Shensi,it continues its way for hundreds of miles to the sea.In successive ages it has taken many different routes,ranging through six or seven degrees of latitude,from the mouth of the Yang-tse-Kiang to that of the Peiho.But wherever it has flowed it has carried ruin,and has left be- hind it a barren waste of sand. Not unlike this has been the materialistic current introduced by the commentators of the Sung Dynasty into the stream of Chinese thought,a current which,having flowed unchecked for seven centuries,has left behind it a moral waste of atheistic sand,incapable of sup- porting the spiritual life of a nation.Taoism has degener- ated into a system of incantations against evil spirits.It has largely borrowed from Buddhism to supplement its own in- nate deficiencies. Buddhism was itself introduced to provide for those inherent wants in the nature of man which Confu- cianism did little or nothing to satisfy. Each of these forms of instruction has been greatly modified by the others.Any kind of organisation which offers a method of practising virtue will be patronised by those who happen to be disposed to lay up a little merit,and to whom this avenue appears as good as any other.Any kind of a divinity which seems adapted to exert a favourable influence in any given direction will be patronised,just as a man who happens to need a new um- brella goes to some shop where they keep such goods for sale. To inquire into the antecedents of the divinity who is thus worshipped,no more occurs to a Chinese than it would occur to an Englishman who wanted the umbrella to satisfy himself as to the origin of umbrellas,and when they first came into general use.

It is not uncommon to meet with learned disquisitions upon the question as to the number of Buddhists and Taoists in China. In our view this question is exactly paralleled by an inquiry into the number of persons in the United Kingdom who use ten-penny nails as compared with the number of those who eat string-beans. Any one who wants to use a ten-penny nail will do so if he can obtain it,and those who like string-beans and can afford to buy them will presump- tively consume them.The case is not different in China as regards the two most prominent“doctrines.”Any Chinese who wants the services of a Buddhist priest,and who can afford to pay for them,will hire the priest,and thus be“a Buddhist.”If he wants a Taoist priest,he will in like man- ner call him,and this makes him“a Taoist.” It is of no consequence to the Chinese which of the two he employs,and he will not improbably call them both at once,and thus be at once“a Buddhist”and“a Taoist.” Thus the same indi- vidual is at once a Confucianist,a Buddhist,and a Taoist,and with no sense of incongruity.Buddhism swallowed Taoism, Taoism swallowed Confucianism,but at last the latter swallowed both Buddhism and Taoism together,and thus“the three religions are one!”

The practical relation of the Chinese to their“three relig- ions”may be illustrated by the relations of an Anglo-Saxon to the materials of which his language is composed:"Saxon and Norman and Dane are we;"but even were it possible to de- termine our remote origin,the choice of our words would not be influenced in the smallest degree by the extent to which we may happen to have Saxon or Norman blood in our veins. Our selection of words will be determined by our mental hab- its,and by the use to which we wish to put the words.The scholar will use many Latin words,with liberal admixture of the Norman,while the farmer will use mostly plain Saxon terms. But in either case the Saxon is the base,to which the other stocks are but additions.In China Confucianism is the base, and all Chinese are Confucianists,as all English are Saxons. To what extent Buddhist or Taoist ideas,phraseology,and practices may be superimposed upon this base,will be deter- mined by circumstances.But to the Chinese there is no more incongruity or contradiction in the combination of the"three religions"in one ceremony,than there is to our thought in the interweaving of words of diverse national origin in the same sentence.

It is always dificult to make a Chinese perceive that two forms of belief are mutually exclusive.He knows nothing about logical contradictories,and cares even less.He has learned by instinct the art of reconciling propositions which are inherently irreconcilable,by violently affirming each of them,paying no heed whatever to their mutual relations.He is thus prepared by all his intellectual training to allow the most incongruous forms of belief to unite,as fluids mingle by endosmosis and exosmosis. He has carried“intellectual hospitality"to the point of logical suicide,but he does not know it,and cannot be made to understand it when he is told.

Two results of this mechanical union of creeds are very noteworthy.The first is the violence done to the innate in- stinct of order,an instinct for which the Chinese are espe- cially distinguished,which is conspicuously displayed in the elaborate machinery of the carefully graded ranks of officials, from the first to the ninth,each marked by its own badge, and having its own special limitations.Something analogous to this might certainly have been looked for in the Chinese pantheon,but nothing of the sort is found.It is vain to in- quire of a Chinese which divinity is supposed to be the greater, the“Pearly Emperor"or Buddha.Even in the"Temple-to- all-the-gods"the order is merely arbitrary and accidental,and subject to constant variations. There is no regular gradua- tion of authority in the spirit world of the Chinese,but such utter confusion as,if found on earth,would be equivalent to chronic anarchy,This state of things is seen in a still more conspicuous manner in the“Halls of the Three Religions,” where the images of Confucius,of Buddha,and of Laotze are displayed in a close harmony.The post of honour is in the centre,and this we should expect to be conceded to Confucius,or if not to him—since he made no claim of any kind to divinity—then to Laotze.There is good reason to think that this question of precedence has been in by-gone days the occasion of acrimonious disputes,but in nearly all the instances of which we happen to have heard,it has been settled in favour of Buddha,albeit a foreigner!

Another significant result of the union of all beliefs in China, found in any of the creeds.This is in accordance with a law akin to that by which a baser currency invariably displaces that which is better.All the lofty maxims of Confucianism have been wholly ineffective in guarding the Confucianists from fear of the goblins and devils which figure so largely in Taoism. It has often been remarked,and with every appear- ance of truth,that there is no other civilised nation in exist- ence which is under such bondage to superstition and credu- lity as the Chinese.Wealthy merchants and learned scholars are not ashamed to be seen,on the two days of the month set apart for that purpose,worshipping the fox,the weasel, the hedgehog,the snake,and the rat,all of which in printed placards are styled“Their Excellencies,”and are thought to have an important effect on human destiny.

It is not many years since the most prominent statesman in China fell on his knees before a water-snake which some one had been pleased to represent as an embodiment of the god of floods,supposed to be the incarnation of an official of a former dynasty,whose success in dealing with brimming rivers was held to be miraculous. This habit of worshipping a snake,alleged to be a god,whenever floods devastate China appears to be a general one. In districts at a distance from a river,any ordinary land-serpent will pass as a god and“no questions asked."If the waters subside,extensive theatrical performances may be held in honour of the god who has granted this boon,to wit,the snake,which is placed on a tray in a temple or other public place for the purpose.The Dis- trict Magistrate,and all other officers,go there every day to prostrate themselves and to burn incense to the divinity.A river-god is generally regarded as the rain-god in regions ad- jacent to waterways,but at a little distance in the interior,the god of war,Kuan Ti,is much more likely to be worshipped for the same purpose;but sometimes both are supplanted by the goddess of mercy.To a Chinese this does not seem at all irrational,for his mind is free from all presumptions as to the unity of nature,and it is very hard for him to appreciate the absurdity,even when it is demonstrated to him.

In connection with these prayers for rain,another curioug and most significant fact has often been brought to our notice. In the famous Chinese novel called"Travels to the West," one of the principal characters was originally a monkey hatched from a stone,and by slow degrees of evolution developed into a man.In some places this imaginary being is worshipped as a rain-god,to the exclusion of both the river-god and the god of war.No instance could put in a clearer light than this the total lack in China of any dividing line between the real and the fictitious. To a Western mind causes and effects are cor- relative. What may be the intuitions of cause and effect in the mind of a Chinese who prays to a non-existent monkey to induce a fall of rain,we are not able to conjecture.

The gods of the Chinese being of this heterogeneous descrip- tion,it is of importance to inquire what the Chinese do with them.To this question there are two answers:they worship them,and they neglect them.It is not very uncommon to meet with estimates of the amount which the whole Chinese nation expends for incense,paper money, etc.,in the course of a year. Such estimates are of course based upon a calcu- lation of the apparent facts in some special district,which is taken as a unit,and then used as a multiplier for all the other districts of the Empire.Nothing can be more precarious than so-called"statistics"of this sort,which have literally no more validity than that census of a cloud of mosquitoes which was taken by a man who“counted until he was tired,and then estimated.”

There is very little which one can be safe in predicating of the Chinese Empire as a whole.Of this truth the worship in Chinese temples is a conspicuous example. The traveller who lands in Canton,and who perceives the clouds of smoke arising from the incessant offerings to the divinities most pop- ular there,will conclude that the Chinese are among the most idolatrous people in the world. But let him restrain his judg- ment until he has visited the other end of the Empire,and he wil find multitudes of the temples neglected,absolutely un- visited except on the first and fifteenth of the moon,in many cases not then,and perhaps not even at the New-Year,when, if ever,the Chinese instinct of worship prevails.He will find hundreds of thousands of temples the remote origin of which is totally lost in antiquity,and which are occasionally repaired, but of which the people can give no account and for which they have no regard.He will find hundreds of square miles of populous territory in which there is to be seen scarcely a single priest,either Taoist or Buddhist. In these regions he will generally find no women in the temples,and the children allowed to grow up without the smallest instruction as to the necessity of propitiating the gods.In other parts of China the condition of things is totally different,and the external rites of idolatry are interwoven into the smallest details of the life of each separate day.

The religious forces of Chinese society may be compared to the volcanic forces which have built up the Hawaiian Islands. In the most northern and western members of the group the volcanoes have for ages been extinct,and their sites marked only by broken-down crater-pits now covered with luxuriant vegetation.But on the southeastern member of the group the fires are still in active operation,and continue at intervals to shake the island from centre to circumference. In some of the oldest parts of China there is the least attention paid to temple worship,and in some of the provinces which at the time of China's greatest glory were wild and barbarous re- gions,idolatry is most flourishing.But it is easy to be misled by surface indications such as these. It is quite possible that they may pass for more than they are worth,and before well- grounded inferences can be safely drawn the subject requires much fuller investigation than it has as yet received.

To"reverence the gods,but to keep at a distance from them,"was the advice of Confucius.It is not strange,there- fore,that his followers at the present day consider respectful neglect to be the most prudent treatment for the multitudinous and incongruous divinities in the Chinese pantheon.When contrasted with the Mongols or the Japanese,the Chinese people are felt to be comparatively free from the bias of re- ligion. It is common to see over the doors of temples the classical expression,"Worship the gods as if they were pres- ent.”The popular instinct has taken at its true value the uncertainty conveyed in the words“as if,”and has embodied them in current sayings which accurately express the state of mind of the mass of the people:

"Worship the gods as if the gods were there,

But if you worship not,the gods don't care.”

One step beyond respectful neglect of the gods is ceremonial reverence,which consists in performing a certain routine in a certain way,with no other thought than that of securing cer- tain external results by so doing.

The idea of solemnity appears to be foreign to the Chinese mind.We do not know how to speak of it without express- ing an idea of what is merely decorum.All Chinese worship of Chinese divinities,of which we have ever been cognisant, has appeared to be either routine ceremonial,or else a mere matter of barter—so much worship for so much benefit. When“the old man of the sky”is spoken of as a being,and to be reverenced,the uniform presentation of this aspect,to the exclusion of all others,shows in a most decisive manner what the worship really is.“Because we have our food and clothes from him,"is the reply when a Chinese is asked why he makes periodical prostrations to this“person.”Even when the individual has no definite opinions as to the real existence of such a being,this does not prevent his confornity to the rite.The ancients did so,and he does as they did. Whether it is of any use“who knows?”

This habit of looking at religious ceremonial from a super- ficial standpoint is well illustrated in a couplet which is some- times posted,in a semi-satirical sense,upon the pillars of a neglected shrine:

"When the temple has no priest,the wind sweeps the floor; If the building is without a light,the moon acts as lamp.”

The gods are worshipped,just as in Western lands an in- surance policy is taken out,because it is the safer way."It is better to believe that the gods exist,"says the popular say- ing,"than to believe that they do not exist;"that is,if they do not exist at all,there is no harm done;whereas if they do exist,and are neglected,they may be angry and revengeful. The gods are supposed to be actuated by the motives which are known to actuate men.It is a proverb that one who has a sheep's head (for a temple offering)can get whatever he desires,and also that those divinities,such as the“Three Pure Ones,"who have nothing special to bestow,will always be poor,while the goddess of mercy and the god of war will be the ones honoured and enriched.

Not only do the Chinese base the argument for the worship of the gods upon the strictly hypothetical foundation,"it can do no harm,and it may do some good,"but they go a step farther,into a region where it is totally impossible for an Oc- cidental mind to follow them.They often say and appear to think,“If you believe in them,then there really are gods; but if you do not believe in them,then there are none!”This mode of speech (a mode of thought it can scarcely be called) resembles that of a Chinese who should say:“If you believe in the Emperor,then there is one;but if you do not believe in one,then there is no Emperor."When this analogy is pointed out,the Chinese are ready enough to admit it,but they do not appear to perceive it for themselves by any necessary process.